Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection

doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0059-2

Meta-Analysis

. 2018 Mar;50(3):381-389.

doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0059-2. Epub 2018 Feb 26.

Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection

Antonio F Pardiñas¹, Peter Holmans¹, Andrew J Pocklington¹, Valentina Escott-Price¹, Stephan Ripke^{2

3}, Noa Carrera¹, Sophie E Legge¹, Sophie Bishop¹, Darren Cameron¹, Marian L Hamshere¹, Jun Han¹, Leon Hubbard¹, Amy Lynham¹, Kiran Mantripragada¹, Elliott Rees¹, James H MacCabe⁴, Steven A McCarroll⁵, Bernhard T Baune⁶, Gerome Breen^{7

8}, Enda M Byrne^{9

10}, Udo Dannlowski¹¹, Thalia C Eley⁷, Caroline Hayward¹², Nicholas G Martin^{13

14}, Andrew M McIntosh^{15

16}, Robert Plomin⁷, David J Porteous¹², Naomi R Wray^{9

10}, Armando Caballero¹⁷, Daniel H Geschwind¹⁸, Laura M Huckins¹⁹, Douglas M Ruderfer¹⁹, Enrique Santiago²⁰, Pamela Sklar¹⁹, Eli A Stahl¹⁹, Hyejung Won¹⁸, Esben Agerbo^{21

22}, Thomas D Als^{21

23

24}, Ole A Andreassen^{25

26}, Marie Bækvad-Hansen^{21

27}, Preben Bo Mortensen^{21

22

23}, Carsten Bøcker Pedersen^{21

22}, Anders D Børglum^{21

23

24}, Jonas Bybjerg-Grauholm^{21

27}, Srdjan Djurovic^{28

29}, Naser Durmishi³⁰, Marianne Giørtz Pedersen^{21

22}, Vera Golimbet³¹, Jakob Grove^{21

23

24

32}, David M Hougaard^{21

27}, Manuel Mattheisen^{21

23

24}, Espen Molden³³, Ole Mors^{21

34}, Merete Nordentoft^{21

35}, Milica Pejovic-Milovancevic³⁶, Engilbert Sigurdsson³⁷, Teimuraz Silagadze³⁸, Christine Søholm Hansen^{21

27}, Kari Stefansson³⁹, Hreinn Stefansson³⁹, Stacy Steinberg³⁹, Sarah Tosato⁴⁰, Thomas Werge^{21

41

42}; GERAD1 Consortium; CRESTAR Consortium; David A Collier^{7

43}, Dan Rujescu^{44

45}, George Kirov¹, Michael J Owen⁴⁶, Michael C O'Donovan⁴⁷, James T R Walters⁴⁸

Collaborators, Affiliations

Collaborators

Denise Harold, Rebecca Sims, Amy Gerrish, Jade Chapman, Valentina Escott-Price, Richard Abraham, Paul Hollingworth, Jaspreet Pahwa, Nicola Denning, Charlene Thomas, Sarah Taylor, John Powell, Petroula Proitsi, Michelle Lupton, Simon Lovestone, Peter Passmore, David Craig, Bernadette McGuinness, Janet Johnston, Stephen Todd, Wolfgang Maier, Frank Jessen, Reiner Heun, Britta Schurmann, Alfredo Ramirez, Tim Becker, Christine Herold, André Lacour, Dmitriy Drichel, Markus Nothen, Alison Goate, Carlos Cruchaga, Petra Nowotny, John C Morris, Kevin Mayo, Peter Holmans, Michael O'Donovan, Michael Owen, Julie Williams, Evanthia Achilla, Esben Agerbo, Cathy L Barr, Theresa Wimberly Böttger, Gerome Breen, Dan Cohen, David A Collier, Sarah Curran, Emma Dempster, Danai Dima, Ramon Sabes-Figuera, Robert J Flanagan, Sophia Frangou, Josef Frank, Christiane Gasse, Fiona Gaughran, Ina Giegling, Jakob Grove, Eilis Hannon, Annette M Hartmann, Barbara Heißerer, Marinka Helthuis, Henriette Thisted Horsdal, Oddur Ingimarsson, Karel Jollie, James L Kennedy, Ole Köhler, Bettina Konte, Maren Lang, Sophie E Legge, Cathryn Lewis, James MacCabe, Anil K Malhotra, Paul McCrone, Sandra M Meier, Jonathan Mill, Ole Mors, Preben Bo Mortensen, Markus M Nöthen, Michael C O'Donovan, Michael J Owen, Antonio F Pardiñas, Carsten B Pedersen, Marcella Rietschel, Dan Rujescu, Ameli Schwalber, Engilbert Sigurdsson, Holger J Sørensen, Benjamin Spencer, Hreinn Stefansson, Henrik Støvring, Jana Strohmaier, Patrick Sullivan, Evangelos Vassos, Moira Verbelen, James T R Walters, Thomas Werge

Affiliations

¹ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
² Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
³ Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany.
⁴ Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁵ Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
⁶ Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
⁷ MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁸ NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁹ Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁰ Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹¹ Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
¹² Medical Genetics Section, Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹³ School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁴ QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁵ Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹⁶ Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹⁷ Departamento de Bioquímica, Genética e Inmunología. Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Vigo, Vigo, Spain.
¹⁸ Department of Neurology, Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
¹⁹ Division of Psychiatric Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
²⁰ Departamento de Biología Funcional. Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
²¹ iPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark.
²² National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²³ iSEQ, Center for Integrative Sequencing, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²⁴ Department of Biomedicine-Human Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²⁵ Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
²⁶ NORMENT, KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
²⁷ Center for Neonatal Screening, Department for Congenital Disorders, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
²⁸ NORMENT, KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
²⁹ Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁰ Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Clinic of Psychiatry, Skopje, Macedonia.
³¹ Department of Clinical Genetics, Mental Health Research Center, Moscow, Russia.
³² Bioinformatics Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
³³ Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁴ Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital, Risskov, Denmark.
³⁵ Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Mental Health Center Copenhagen, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
³⁶ Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁷ Department of Psychiatry, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland.
³⁸ Department of Psychiatry and Drug Addiction, Tbilisi State Medical University (TSMU), Tbilisi, Georgia.
³⁹ deCODE Genetics, Reykjavik, Iceland.
⁴⁰ Section of Psychiatry, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
⁴¹ Institute of Biological Psychiatry, MHC Sct. Hans, Mental Health Services Copenhagen, Roskilde, Denmark.
⁴² Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
⁴³ Discovery Neuroscience Research, Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Research Laboratories, Windlesham, UK.
⁴⁴ Department of Psychiatry, University of Halle, Halle, Germany.
⁴⁵ Department of Psychiatry, University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
⁴⁶ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. owenmj@cardiff.ac.uk.
⁴⁷ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. odonovanmc@cardiff.ac.uk.
⁴⁸ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. waltersjt@cardiff.ac.uk.

PMID: 29483656
PMCID: PMC5918692
DOI: 10.1038/s41588-018-0059-2

Meta-Analysis

Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection

Antonio F Pardiñas et al. Nat Genet. 2018 Mar.

. 2018 Mar;50(3):381-389.

doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0059-2. Epub 2018 Feb 26.

Authors

Collaborators

Denise Harold, Rebecca Sims, Amy Gerrish, Jade Chapman, Valentina Escott-Price, Richard Abraham, Paul Hollingworth, Jaspreet Pahwa, Nicola Denning, Charlene Thomas, Sarah Taylor, John Powell, Petroula Proitsi, Michelle Lupton, Simon Lovestone, Peter Passmore, David Craig, Bernadette McGuinness, Janet Johnston, Stephen Todd, Wolfgang Maier, Frank Jessen, Reiner Heun, Britta Schurmann, Alfredo Ramirez, Tim Becker, Christine Herold, André Lacour, Dmitriy Drichel, Markus Nothen, Alison Goate, Carlos Cruchaga, Petra Nowotny, John C Morris, Kevin Mayo, Peter Holmans, Michael O'Donovan, Michael Owen, Julie Williams, Evanthia Achilla, Esben Agerbo, Cathy L Barr, Theresa Wimberly Böttger, Gerome Breen, Dan Cohen, David A Collier, Sarah Curran, Emma Dempster, Danai Dima, Ramon Sabes-Figuera, Robert J Flanagan, Sophia Frangou, Josef Frank, Christiane Gasse, Fiona Gaughran, Ina Giegling, Jakob Grove, Eilis Hannon, Annette M Hartmann, Barbara Heißerer, Marinka Helthuis, Henriette Thisted Horsdal, Oddur Ingimarsson, Karel Jollie, James L Kennedy, Ole Köhler, Bettina Konte, Maren Lang, Sophie E Legge, Cathryn Lewis, James MacCabe, Anil K Malhotra, Paul McCrone, Sandra M Meier, Jonathan Mill, Ole Mors, Preben Bo Mortensen, Markus M Nöthen, Michael C O'Donovan, Michael J Owen, Antonio F Pardiñas, Carsten B Pedersen, Marcella Rietschel, Dan Rujescu, Ameli Schwalber, Engilbert Sigurdsson, Holger J Sørensen, Benjamin Spencer, Hreinn Stefansson, Henrik Støvring, Jana Strohmaier, Patrick Sullivan, Evangelos Vassos, Moira Verbelen, James T R Walters, Thomas Werge

Affiliations

¹ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
² Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
³ Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany.
⁴ Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁵ Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
⁶ Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
⁷ MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁸ NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
⁹ Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁰ Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹¹ Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
¹² Medical Genetics Section, Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹³ School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁴ QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
¹⁵ Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹⁶ Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
¹⁷ Departamento de Bioquímica, Genética e Inmunología. Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Vigo, Vigo, Spain.
¹⁸ Department of Neurology, Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
¹⁹ Division of Psychiatric Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
²⁰ Departamento de Biología Funcional. Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
²¹ iPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark.
²² National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²³ iSEQ, Center for Integrative Sequencing, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²⁴ Department of Biomedicine-Human Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
²⁵ Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
²⁶ NORMENT, KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
²⁷ Center for Neonatal Screening, Department for Congenital Disorders, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
²⁸ NORMENT, KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
²⁹ Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁰ Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Clinic of Psychiatry, Skopje, Macedonia.
³¹ Department of Clinical Genetics, Mental Health Research Center, Moscow, Russia.
³² Bioinformatics Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
³³ Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
³⁴ Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital, Risskov, Denmark.
³⁵ Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Mental Health Center Copenhagen, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
³⁶ Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁷ Department of Psychiatry, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland.
³⁸ Department of Psychiatry and Drug Addiction, Tbilisi State Medical University (TSMU), Tbilisi, Georgia.
³⁹ deCODE Genetics, Reykjavik, Iceland.
⁴⁰ Section of Psychiatry, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
⁴¹ Institute of Biological Psychiatry, MHC Sct. Hans, Mental Health Services Copenhagen, Roskilde, Denmark.
⁴² Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
⁴³ Discovery Neuroscience Research, Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Research Laboratories, Windlesham, UK.
⁴⁴ Department of Psychiatry, University of Halle, Halle, Germany.
⁴⁵ Department of Psychiatry, University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
⁴⁶ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. owenmj@cardiff.ac.uk.
⁴⁷ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. odonovanmc@cardiff.ac.uk.
⁴⁸ MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. waltersjt@cardiff.ac.uk.

PMID: 29483656
PMCID: PMC5918692
DOI: 10.1038/s41588-018-0059-2

Erratum in

Publisher Correction: Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection.
Pardiñas AF, Holmans P, Pocklington AJ, Escott-Price V, Ripke S, Carrera N, Legge SE, Bishop S, Cameron D, Hamshere ML, Han J, Hubbard L, Lynham A, Mantripragada K, Rees E, MacCabe JH, McCarroll SA, Baune BT, Breen G, Byrne EM, Dannlowski U, Eley TC, Hayward C, Martin NG, McIntosh AM, Plomin R, Porteous DJ, Wray NR, Caballero A, Geschwind DH, Huckins LM, Ruderfer DM, Santiago E, Sklar P, Stahl EA, Won H, Agerbo E, Als TD, Andreassen OA, Bækvad-Hansen M, Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, Børglum AD, Bybjerg-Grauholm J, Djurovic S, Durmishi N, Pedersen MG, Golimbet V, Grove J, Hougaard DM, Mattheisen M, Molden E, Mors O, Nordentoft M, Pejovic-Milovancevic M, Sigurdsson E, Silagadze T, Hansen CS, Stefansson K, Stefansson H, Steinberg S, Tosato S, Werge T; GERAD1 Consortium; CRESTAR Consortium; Collier DA, Rujescu D, Kirov G, Owen MJ, O'Donovan MC, Walters JTR. Pardiñas AF, et al. Nat Genet. 2019 Jul;51(7):1193. doi: 10.1038/s41588-019-0450-7. Nat Genet. 2019. PMID: 31160808

Abstract

Schizophrenia is a debilitating psychiatric condition often associated with poor quality of life and decreased life expectancy. Lack of progress in improving treatment outcomes has been attributed to limited knowledge of the underlying biology, although large-scale genomic studies have begun to provide insights. We report a new genome-wide association study of schizophrenia (11,260 cases and 24,542 controls), and through meta-analysis with existing data we identify 50 novel associated loci and 145 loci in total. Through integrating genomic fine-mapping with brain expression and chromosome conformation data, we identify candidate causal genes within 33 loci. We also show for the first time that the common variant association signal is highly enriched among genes that are under strong selective pressures. These findings provide new insights into the biology and genetic architecture of schizophrenia, highlight the importance of mutation-intolerant genes and suggest a mechanism by which common risk variants persist in the population.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests

D.A.C. is a full-time employee and stockholder of Eli Lilly and Company. The remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

**Fig. 1. Manhattan plot of schizophrenia GWAS associations**
Associations are shown from the meta-analysis of CLOZUK and an independent PGC dataset (n = 105,318; 40,675 cases and 64,643 controls). The 145 genome-wide significant loci are highlighted in green. The red horizontal line indicates the genome-wide statistical significance threshold (P = 5×10⁻⁸).

**Fig. 2. Partitioned heritability analysis of gene sets in schizophrenia**
a, Heritability of genomic partitions and the six conditionally independent (‘significant’) gene sets (Table 2). The radius of each segment indicates the degree of enrichment, while the arc (angle of each slice) indicates the percentage of total SNP-based heritability explained. No relative enrichment (enrichment = 1) is shown by the dashed red line (and depletion equates to enrichment <1, inside red line). b, Heritability of the significant CNS gene sets dissected by their overlap with LoF-intolerant genes. Whiskers represent heritability or enrichment standard errors. Asterisks indicate the significance of each heritability enrichment (*P≤0.05, **P≤0.01, ***P≤0.001).

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References

1. Owen MJ, Sawa A, Mortensen PB. Schizophrenia. Lancet. 2016;388:86–97. - PMC - PubMed
1. Thornicroft G. Physical health disparities and mental illness: the scandal of premature mortality. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199:441–442. - PubMed
1. Olfson M, Gerhard T, Huang C, Crystal S, Stroup TS. Premature mortality among adults with schizophrenia in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:1172–1181. - PubMed
1. Morgan C, et al. Reappraising the long-term course and outcome of psychotic disorders: the AESOP-10 study. Psychol Med. 2014;44:2713–2726. - PMC - PubMed
1. Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature. 2014;511:421–427. - PMC - PubMed

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[1] Owen MJ, Sawa A, Mortensen PB. Schizophrenia. Lancet. 2016;388:86–97. - PMC - PubMed

[2] Owen MJ, Sawa A, Mortensen PB. Schizophrenia. Lancet. 2016;388:86–97. - PMC - PubMed

[3] Thornicroft G. Physical health disparities and mental illness: the scandal of premature mortality. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199:441–442. - PubMed

[4] Thornicroft G. Physical health disparities and mental illness: the scandal of premature mortality. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199:441–442. - PubMed

[5] Olfson M, Gerhard T, Huang C, Crystal S, Stroup TS. Premature mortality among adults with schizophrenia in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:1172–1181. - PubMed

[6] Olfson M, Gerhard T, Huang C, Crystal S, Stroup TS. Premature mortality among adults with schizophrenia in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:1172–1181. - PubMed

[7] Morgan C, et al. Reappraising the long-term course and outcome of psychotic disorders: the AESOP-10 study. Psychol Med. 2014;44:2713–2726. - PMC - PubMed

[8] Morgan C, et al. Reappraising the long-term course and outcome of psychotic disorders: the AESOP-10 study. Psychol Med. 2014;44:2713–2726. - PMC - PubMed

[9] Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature. 2014;511:421–427. - PMC - PubMed

[10] Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature. 2014;511:421–427. - PMC - PubMed

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Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection

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Affiliations

Common schizophrenia alleles are enriched in mutation-intolerant genes and in regions under strong background selection

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Collaborators

Affiliations

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Abstract

Conflict of interest statement

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