Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current HIV Research

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-162X
ISSN (Online): 1873-4251

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

The Interrelationship between HIV Infection and COVID-19: A Review of the Literature

Author(s): Yiyu Wang and Yu Lai*

Volume 22, Issue 1, 2024

Published on: 27 December, 2023

Page: [6 - 15] Pages: 10

DOI: 10.2174/011570162X282739231222062830

Price: $65

Abstract

The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic resulting from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led to significant morbidity and mortality in patients and put a strain on healthcare systems worldwide. The clinical characteristics and results of COVID-19 in immunosuppressed patients, such as people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH), considered at higher risk of severe disease, are not well-characterized. Accumulated evidence indicates that COVID-19 and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can interact in various ways. This review explored the similarities and differences in virology between SARS-CoV-2 and HIV, the effect of the COVID-19 vaccine on PLWH, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on PLWH care and prevention, and the influence of HIV-related factors on COVID-19. Discovering the potential link between HIV and COVID-19 may provide a novel way to avoid the factors of HIV and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection and advance future research.

Keywords: Keywords: COVID-19, HIV, Coinfection, SARS-CoV-2, PLWH, epidemic, virus

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Organization WH. HO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19-11 March. Geneva, Switzerland 2020.
[2]
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) data. 2023.
[3]
Data on the size of the HIV epidemic. 2021.
[4]
Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: A collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet 2008; 372(9635): 293-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61113-7] [PMID: 18657708]
[5]
Li M, Wang H, Tian L, et al. COVID-19 vaccine development: Milestones, lessons and prospects. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7(1): 146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-00996-y] [PMID: 35504917]
[6]
Menza TW, Capizzi J, Zlot AI, Barber M, Bush L. COVID-19 vaccine uptake among people living with HIV. AIDS Behav 2022; 26(7): 2224-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03570-9] [PMID: 34994913]
[7]
Chun HM, Milligan K, Agyemang E, et al. A systematic review of COVID-19 vaccine antibody responses in people with HIV. Open Forum Infect Dis 2022; 9(11): ofac579.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofac579] [PMID: 36438620]
[8]
D’Souza G, Springer G, Gustafson D, et al. COVID-19 symptoms and SARS-CoV-2 infection among people living with HIV in the US: The MACS/WIHS combined cohort study. HIV Res Clin Pract 2020; 21(5): 130-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/25787489.2020.1844521] [PMID: 33211636]
[9]
Spinelli MA, Jones BLH, Gandhi M. COVID-19 outcomes and risk factors among people living with HIV. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2022; 19(5): 425-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11904-022-00618-w] [PMID: 35930187]
[10]
Cooper TJ, Woodward BL, Alom S, Harky A. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients: A systematic review. HIV Med 2020; 21(9): 567-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hiv.12911] [PMID: 32671970]
[11]
Mirzaei H, McFarland W, Karamouzian M, Sharifi H. COVID-19 among people living with HIV: A systematic review. AIDS Behav 2021; 25(1): 85-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02983-2] [PMID: 32734438]
[12]
Prabhu S, Poongulali S, Kumarasamy N. Impact of COVID-19 on people living with HIV: A review. J Virus Erad 2020; 6(4): 100019.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jve.2020.100019] [PMID: 33083001]
[13]
Duerr R, Crosse KM, Valero-Jimenez AM, Dittmann M. SARS-CoV-2 portrayed against HIV: Contrary viral strategies in similar disguise. Microorganisms 2021; 9(7): 1389.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9071389] [PMID: 34198973]
[14]
Ren LL, Wang YM, Wu ZQ, et al. Identification of a novel coronavirus causing severe pneumonia in human: A descriptive study. Chin Med J 2020; 133(9): 1015-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CM9.0000000000000722] [PMID: 32004165]
[15]
Baltimore D. Expression of animal virus genomes. Bacteriol Rev 1971; 35(3): 235-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/br.35.3.235-241.1971] [PMID: 4329869]
[16]
Mahmoudabadi G, Phillips R. A comprehensive and quantitative exploration of thousands of viral genomes. eLife 2018; 7: e31955.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.31955] [PMID: 29624169]
[17]
Fanales-Belasio E, Raimondo M, Suligoi B, Buttò S. HIV virology and pathogenetic mechanisms of infection: A brief overview. Ann Ist Super Sanita 2010; 46(1): 5-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0021-25712010000100002] [PMID: 20348614]
[18]
Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 265-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3] [PMID: 32015508]
[19]
Shaw GM, Hunter E. HIV transmission. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012; 2(11): a006965.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006965] [PMID: 23043157]
[20]
General Office of National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Diagnostic and treatment protocol for Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia. 2020; pp. 1-13.
[21]
Rein A. RNA packaging in HIV. Trends Microbiol 2019; 27(8): 715-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2019.04.003] [PMID: 31085095]
[22]
Savastano A, Ibáñez de Opakua A, Rankovic M, Zweckstetter M. Nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV-2 phase separates into RNA-rich polymerase-containing condensates. Nat Commun 2020; 11(1): 6041.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19843-1] [PMID: 33247108]
[23]
Mattei S, Glass B, Hagen WJH, Kräusslich HG, Briggs JAG. The structure and flexibility of conical HIV-1 capsids determined within intact virions. Science 2016; 354(6318): 1434-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aah4972] [PMID: 27980210]
[24]
Campbell EM, Hope TJ. HIV-1 capsid: The multifaceted key player in HIV-1 infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 2015; 13(8): 471-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3503] [PMID: 26179359]
[25]
Forchette L, Sebastian W, Liu T. A comprehensive review of COVID-19 virology, vaccines, variants, and therapeutics. Curr Med Sci 2021; 41(6): 1037-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11596-021-2395-1] [PMID: 34241776]
[26]
Ziegler CGK, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, et al. SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 is an interferon-stimulated gene in human airway epithelial cells and is detected in specific cell subsets across tissues. Cell 2020; 181(5): 1016-1035.e19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.035] [PMID: 32413319]
[27]
Illanes-Álvarez F, Márquez-Ruiz D, Márquez-Coello M, Cuesta-Sancho S, Girón-González JA. Similarities and differences between HIV and SARS-CoV-2. Int J Med Sci 2021; 18(3): 846-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/ijms.50133] [PMID: 33437221]
[28]
Watts JM, Dang KK, Gorelick RJ, et al. Architecture and secondary structure of an entire HIV-1 RNA genome. Nature 2009; 460(7256): 711-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08237] [PMID: 19661910]
[29]
Fung M, Babik JM. COVID-19 in immunocompromised hosts: What we know so far. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 72(2): 340-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa863] [PMID: 33501974]
[30]
Wang W, Tang J, Wei F. Updated understanding of the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Wuhan, China. J Med Virol 2020; 92(4): 441-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25689] [PMID: 31994742]
[31]
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[32]
Carlos WG, Dela Cruz CS, Cao B, Pasnick S, Jamil S. Novel wuhan (2019-nCoV) coronavirus. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 201(4): 7-P8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.2014P7] [PMID: 32004066]
[33]
Bangham CRM, McMichael AJ. Why the long latent period? Nature 1990; 348(6300): 388.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/348388a0] [PMID: 1978928]
[34]
Vaillant AJ, Gulick P. HIV disease StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing 2019.
[35]
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(13): 1199-207.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316] [PMID: 31995857]
[36]
Li L, Huang T, Wang Y, et al. COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol 2020; 92(6): 577-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25757] [PMID: 32162702]
[37]
Liu Y, Han J, Li X, et al. COVID-19 vaccination in people living with HIV (PLWH) in China: A cross sectional study of vaccine hesitancy, safety, and immunogenicity. Vaccines 2021; 9(12): 1458.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9121458] [PMID: 34960204]
[38]
Duly K, Farraye FA, Bhat S. COVID-19 vaccine use in immunocompromised patients: A commentary on evidence and recommendations. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2022; 79(2): 63-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/zxab344] [PMID: 34455440]
[39]
Vasan S, Pitisuttithum P. Vaccine development lessons between HIV and COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; 21(6): 759-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00274-7] [PMID: 34051181]
[40]
Rerks-Ngarm S, Pitisuttithum P, Nitayaphan S, et al. Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to prevent HIV-1 infection in Thailand. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(23): 2209-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0908492] [PMID: 19843557]
[41]
Han X, Yu X, Han Y, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of inactivated COVID-19 vaccines among people living with HIV in China. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 15: 2091-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S353127] [PMID: 35480056]
[42]
Kang L, Shang W, Gao P, Wang Y, Liu J, Liu M. Immunogenicity and safety of COVID-19 vaccines among people living with HIV: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccines 2022; 10(9): 1569.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10091569] [PMID: 36146647]
[43]
Vallée A, Fourn E, Majerholc C, Touche P, Zucman D. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among french people living with HIV. Vaccines 2021; 9(4): 302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9040302] [PMID: 33804808]
[44]
Bogart LM, Ojikutu BO, Tyagi K, et al. COVID-19 related medical mistrust, health impacts, and potential vaccine hesitancy among black americans living with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2021; 86(2): 200-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002570] [PMID: 33196555]
[45]
Yao Y, Chai R, Yang J, et al. Reasons for COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among chinese people living with HIV/AIDS: Structural equation modeling analysis. JMIR Public Health Surveill 2022; 8(6): e33995.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/33995] [PMID: 35486810]
[46]
Kaida A, Brotto LA, Murray MCM, et al. Intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine by HIV status among a population-based sample of women and gender diverse individuals in British Columbia, Canada. AIDS Behav 2022; 26(7): 2242-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-022-03577-w] [PMID: 35020094]
[47]
Sadoff J, Gray G, Vandebosch A, et al. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2021; 384(23): 2187-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2101544] [PMID: 33882225]
[48]
Logunov DY, Livermore DM, Ornelles DA, et al. COVID-19 vaccination and HIV-1 acquisition. Lancet 2022; 399(10333): e34-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00332-4] [PMID: 35397866]
[49]
Ten threats to global health in 2019 2019.
[50]
Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China. JAMA 2020; 323(13): 1239-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2648] [PMID: 32091533]
[51]
COVID-19 vaccines and HIV 2021.
[52]
Frescura L, Godfrey-Faussett P, Feizzadeh A A, El-Sadr W, Syarif O, Ghys PD. Achieving the 95 95 95 targets for all: A pathway to ending AIDS. PLoS One 2022; 17(8): e0272405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272405] [PMID: 35925943]
[53]
Guaraldi G, Milic J, Martinez E, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care models during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) era. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73(5): e1222-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1864] [PMID: 34492689]
[54]
Roy K, Himelfarb A, Karrah K, et al. The social, behavioral, and ethical modalities of COVID-19 on HIV care in South Africa: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19(15): 9766.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159766] [PMID: 35955119]
[55]
Kowalska JD, Skrzat-Klapaczyńska A, Bursa D, et al. HIV care in times of the COVID-19 crisis - Where are we now in Central and Eastern Europe? Int J Infect Dis 2020; 96: 311-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.013] [PMID: 32413608]
[56]
Qiao S, Yang X, Sun S, et al. Challenges to HIV service delivery and the impacts on patient care during COVID-19: perspective of HIV care providers in Guangxi, China. AIDS Care 2021; 33(5): 559-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2020.1849532] [PMID: 33242981]
[57]
Disruption in HIV, Hepatitis and STI services due to COVID-19 2020.
[58]
Sun S, Hou J, Chen Y, Lu Y, Brown L, Operario D. Challenges to HIV care and psychological health during the COVID-19 pandemic among people living with HIV in China. AIDS Behav 2020; 24(10): 2764-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02903-4] [PMID: 32382824]
[59]
Pinto RM, Park S. COVID-19 pandemic disrupts HIV continuum of care and prevention: Implications for research and practice concerning community-based organizations and frontline providers. AIDS Behav 2020; 24(9): 2486-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02893-3] [PMID: 32347403]
[60]
Shiau S, Krause KD, Valera P, Swaminathan S, Halkitis PN. The burden of COVID-19 in people living with HIV: A syndemic perspective. AIDS Behav 2020; 24(8): 2244-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02871-9] [PMID: 32303925]
[61]
Krakower D, Solleveld P, Levine K, Mayer K. Impact of COVID-19 on HIV preexposure prophylaxis care at a Boston community health center. J Int AIDS Soc 2020; 176-7.
[62]
Grimsrud A, Wilkinson L. Acceleration of differentiated service delivery for HIV treatment in sub-Saharan Africa during COVID-19. J Int AIDS Soc 2021; 24(6): e25704.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25704] [PMID: 34105884]
[63]
Jewell BL, Mudimu E, Stover J, et al. Potential effects of disruption to HIV programmes in sub-Saharan Africa caused by COVID-19: Results from multiple mathematical models. Lancet HIV 2020; 7(9): e629-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30211-3] [PMID: 32771089]
[64]
Holmes EA, O’Connor RC, Perry VH, et al. Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. Lancet Psychiatry 2020; 7(6): 547-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30168-1] [PMID: 32304649]
[65]
Shin S, Muñoz M, Espiritu B, et al. Psychosocial impact of poverty on antiretroviral nonadherence among HIV-TB coinfected patients in Lima, Peru. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic) 2008; 7(2): 74-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1545109708315326] [PMID: 18319510]
[66]
Wu DY, Munoz M, Espiritu B, et al. Burden of depression among impoverished HIV-positive women in Peru. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008; 48(4): 500-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31817dc3e9] [PMID: 18614919]
[67]
Zafra-Tanaka JH, Ticona-Chavez E. [Stigma related to HIV/AIDS associated with adherence to antiretroviral therapy in patients of a public hospital in Lima, Peru 2014]. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica 2016; 33(4): 625-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.17843/rpmesp.2016.334.2544] [PMID: 28327830]
[68]
Earnshaw VA, Bogart LM, Laurenceau JP, et al. Internalized HIV stigma, ART initiation and HIV -1 RNA suppression in South Africa: Exploring avoidant coping as a longitudinal mediator. J Int AIDS Soc 2018; 21(10): e25198.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25198] [PMID: 30362662]
[69]
Budak JZ, Scott JD, Dhanireddy S, Wood BR. The impact of COVID-19 on HIV care provided via telemedicine-past, present, and future. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2021; 18(2): 98-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11904-021-00543-4] [PMID: 33616811]
[70]
Bell N, Bracchi M, Dalla Pria A, Nelson M, Boffito M. Indirect human immunodeficiency virus morbidity and mortality due to coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73(10): 1947-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab128] [PMID: 33580253]
[71]
Mehta SA, Rana MM, Motter JD, et al. Incidence and outcomes of COVID-19 in kidney and liver transplant recipients with HIV: Report from the national hope in action consortium. Transplantation 2021; 105(1): 216-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000003527] [PMID: 33165238]
[72]
Nagarakanti SR, Okoh AK, Grinberg S, Bishburg E. Clinical outcomes of patients with COVID-19 and HIV co-infection. J Med Virol 2021; 93(3): 1687-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26533] [PMID: 32949148]
[73]
Waters LJ, Pozniak AL. COVID-19 death in people with HIV: Interpret cautiously. Lancet HIV 2021; 8(1): e2-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30332-5] [PMID: 33316210]
[74]
Bhaskaran K, Rentsch CT, MacKenna B, et al. HIV infection and COVID-19 death: A population-based cohort analysis of UK primary care data and linked national death registrations within the OpenSAFELY platform. Lancet HIV 2021; 8(1): e24-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30305-2] [PMID: 33316211]
[75]
Looha MA, Taraghikhah N, Amini M, et al. The impact of HIV on the risk of COVID-19 death among hospitalized patients. Hum Antibodies 2023; 30(4): 165-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/HAB-220011] [PMID: 36617778]
[76]
Ssentongo P, Ssentongo AE, Heilbrunn ES, Ba DM, Chinchilli VM. Association of cardiovascular disease and 10 other pre-existing comorbidities with COVID-19 mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2020; 15(8): e0238215.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238215] [PMID: 32845926]
[77]
Sarkar S, Khanna P, Singh AK. Impact of COVID-19 in patients with concurrent co-infections: A systematic review and meta-analyses. J Med Virol 2021; 93(4): 2385-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26740] [PMID: 33331656]
[78]
Venturas J, Zamparini J, Shaddock E, et al. Comparison of outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients with COVID-19. J Infect 2021; 83(2): 217-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2021.05.020] [PMID: 34051225]
[79]
Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas 2016 2017.
[80]
Islam JY, Madhira V, Sun J, et al. Racial disparities in COVID-19 test positivity among people living with HIV in the United States. Int J STD AIDS 2022; 33(5)
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09564624221074468] [PMID: 35306931]
[81]
Prejean J, Song R, Hernandez A, et al. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2006–2009. PLoS One 2011; 6(8): e17502.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017502] [PMID: 21826193]
[82]
Varshney K, Ghosh P, Stiles H, Iriowen R. Risk factors for COVID-19 mortality among people living with HIV: A scoping review. AIDS Behav 2022; 26(7): 2256-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-022-03578-9] [PMID: 35024992]
[83]
Williamson EJ, Walker AJ, Bhaskaran K, et al. Factors associated with COVID-19-related death using OpenSAFELY. Nature 2020; 584(7821): 430-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4] [PMID: 32640463]
[84]
Etienne N, Karmochkine M, Slama L, et al. HIV infection and COVID-19: Risk factors for severe disease. AIDS 2020; 34(12): 1771-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000002651] [PMID: 32773476]
[85]
Pan D, Sze S, Minhas JS, et al. The impact of ethnicity on clinical outcomes in COVID-19: A systematic review. EClinicalMedicine 2020; 23: 100404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100404] [PMID: 32632416]
[86]
Crepaz N, Dong X, Wang X, Hernandez AL, Hall HI. Racial and ethnic disparities in sustained viral suppression and transmission risk potential among persons receiving HIV care - United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018; 67(4): 113-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6704a2] [PMID: 29389918]
[87]
Simard EP, Fransua M, Naishadham D, Jemal A. The influence of sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment on human immunodeficiency virus death rates among adults, 1993-2007. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172(20): 1591-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2012.4508] [PMID: 23045164]
[88]
Simoni JM, Huh D, Wilson IB, et al. Racial/Ethnic disparities in ART adherence in the United States: Findings from the MACH14 study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2012; 60(5): 466-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31825db0bd] [PMID: 22595873]
[89]
Millett GA. New pathogen, same disparities: Why COVID‐19 and HIV remain prevalent in U.S. Communities of colour and implications for ending the HIV epidemic. J Int AIDS Soc 2020; 23(11): e25639.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25639] [PMID: 33222424]
[90]
Guan W, Ni Z, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(18): 1708-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032] [PMID: 32109013]
[91]
Jiang M, Guo Y, Luo Q, et al. T-cell subset counts in peripheral blood can be used as discriminatory biomarkers for diagnosis and severity prediction of coronavirus disease 2019. J Infect Dis 2020; 222(2): 198-202.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa252] [PMID: 32379887]
[92]
Zhang H, Wu T. CD4+T, CD8+T counts and severe COVID-19: A meta-analysis. J Infect 2020; 81(3): e82-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.036] [PMID: 32569604]
[93]
Ho H, Peluso MJ, Margus C, et al. Clinical outcomes and immunologic characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in people with human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 2021; 223(3): 403-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaa380] [PMID: 32601704]
[94]
Tesoriero JM, Swain CAE, Pierce JL, et al. COVID-19 outcomes among persons living with or without diagnosed HIV infection in New York state. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4(2): e2037069.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.37069] [PMID: 33533933]
[95]
Davies M-A. HIV and risk of COVID-19 death: A population cohort study from the western cape province, South Africa. MedRxiv 2020; 2020.07.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.02.20145185]
[96]
del Amo J, Polo R, Moreno S, et al. Incidence and severity of COVID-19 in HIV-positive persons receiving antiretroviral therapy: A cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2020; 173(7): 536-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M20-3689] [PMID: 32589451]
[97]
Tay MZ, Poh CM, Rénia L, MacAry PA, Ng LFP. The trinity of COVID-19: Immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nat Rev Immunol 2020; 20(6): 363-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41577-020-0311-8] [PMID: 32346093]
[98]
Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, et al. A trial of lopinavir–ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(19): 1787-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001282] [PMID: 32187464]
[99]
Bertagnolio S, Thwin SS, Silva R, et al. Clinical features of, and risk factors for, severe or fatal COVID-19 among people living with HIV admitted to hospital: Analysis of data from the WHO global clinical platform of COVID-19. Lancet HIV 2022; 9(7): e486-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(22)00097-2] [PMID: 35561704]
[100]
Zhou Y, Vedantham P, Lu K, et al. Protease inhibitors targeting coronavirus and filovirus entry. Antiviral Res 2015; 116: 76-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2015.01.011] [PMID: 25666761]
[101]
Li G, De Clercq E. Therapeutic options for the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Nat Rev Drug Discov 2020; 19(3): 149-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41573-020-00016-0] [PMID: 32127666]
[102]
Chan JFW, Yao Y, Yeung ML, et al. Treatment with lopinavir/ritonavir or interferon-β1b improves outcome of MERS-CoV infection in a nonhuman primate model of common marmoset. J Infect Dis 2015; 212(12): 1904-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv392] [PMID: 26198719]
[103]
Young BE, Ong SWX, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epidemiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA 2020; 323(15): 1488-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.3204] [PMID: 32125362]
[104]
Han W, Quan B, Guo Y, et al. The course of clinical diagnosis and treatment of a case infected with coronavirus disease 2019. J Med Virol 2020; 92(5): 461-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25711] [PMID: 32073161]
[105]
Liu F, Xu A, Zhang Y, et al. Patients of COVID-19 may benefit from sustained Lopinavir-combined regimen and the increase of Eosinophil may predict the outcome of COVID-19 progression. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 95: 183-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.013] [PMID: 32173576]
[106]
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395(10223): 507-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7] [PMID: 32007143]
[107]
Elfiky AA. Ribavirin, remdesivir, sofosbuvir, galidesivir, and tenofovir against SARS-CoV-2 RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp): A molecular docking study. Life Sci 2020; 253: 117592.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117592] [PMID: 32222463]
[108]
Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York city area. JAMA 2020; 323(20): 2052-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6775] [PMID: 32320003]
[109]
Vizcarra P, Pérez-Elías MJ, Quereda C, et al. Description of COVID-19 in HIV-infected individuals: A single-centre, prospective cohort. Lancet HIV 2020; 7(8): e554-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(20)30164-8] [PMID: 32473657]
[110]
Brown LB, Spinelli MA, Gandhi M. The interplay between HIV and COVID-19: Summary of the data and responses to date. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2021; 16(1): 63-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/COH.0000000000000659] [PMID: 33186229]
[111]
Frater J, Ewer KJ, Ogbe A, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in HIV infection: A single-arm substudy of a phase 2/3 clinical trial. Lancet HIV 2021; 8(8): e474-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(21)00103-X] [PMID: 34153264]
[112]
Elvstam O, Medstrand P, Yilmaz A, Isberg PE, Gisslén M, Björkman P. Virological failure and all-cause mortality in HIV-positive adults with low-level viremia during antiretroviral treatment. PLoS One 2017; 12(7): e0180761.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180761] [PMID: 28683128]
[113]
Gray ES, Madiga MC, Hermanus T, et al. The neutralization breadth of HIV-1 develops incrementally over four years and is associated with CD4+ T cell decline and high viral load during acute infection. J Virol 2011; 85(10): 4828-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00198-11] [PMID: 21389135]
[114]
Jones LE, Perelson AS. Transient viremia, plasma viral load, and reservoir replenishment in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 45(5): 483-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3180654836] [PMID: 17496565]
[115]
Stover J, Kelly SL, Mudimu E, et al. The risks and benefits of providing HIV services during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One 2021; 16(12): e0260820.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260820] [PMID: 34941876]
[116]
Ayerdi O, Puerta T, Clavo P, et al. Preventive efficacy of tenofovir/emtricitabine against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 among pre-exposure prophylaxis users. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7(11): ofaa455.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofaa455] [PMID: 33200081]
[117]
Nadkarni GN, Lala A, Bagiella E, et al. Anticoagulation, bleeding, mortality, and pathology in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 76(16): 1815-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.08.041] [PMID: 32860872]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
21
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy
-