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Judges have long wrestled with the gigantean task of defining religion, with some describing the task as being ‘called upon to ponder the imponderable’, an impossible task, and even misguided. Despite these sentiments, and comments in almost every legal definition expressing the impossibility of the task, judges have, in fact, been able to come up with numerous legal definitions for religion. These have been applied in myriad circumstances to define the outer limits of the rights and responsibilities of states, religious communities, organisations, and individuals. By contrast, the term secular has rarely been judicially defined. However, it is no-less important in defining the rights and responsibilities of states and their citizens and residents, particularly in light of the number of states that claim, implicitly or explicitly, to be secular. This paper, therefore, (re)examines the definition of the secular as it pertains to the concept of the secular state. It considers the need for a legal definition of the secular with particular reference to constitutional and other legal instruments that include the term. It then examines the difference between the terms secular, secularisation and secularism, noting the often erroneous conflation as well as the inevitable interaction and overlap between these key concepts. Finally, drawing on existing classifications of legal definitions of religion, the paper classifies definitions of the secular into three overarching classifications, namely ‘historical’, ‘substantive’ and ‘characteristic’. Full article

Enhancing legal certainty is one of the main values that are sought in the investor–state dispute settlement system. The importance of legal certainty is strengthened in the case of renewable energy investments, which are in the global public interest, long-term and capital-intensive up-front. The first part of the paper presents the importance of legal certainty in investment arbitration in general, its limits and its importance in the context of the green energy transition. In addition, it addresses the special features of renewable energy investments. The second part of the paper analyses from the perspective of legal certainty the Spanish renewable energy cases initiated under the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT), which deal with similar factual and legal issues. In this respect, the paper presents the varying weight tribunals gave to the important facts that led them further to conclude whether Spain breached the fair and equitable treatment standard, and if so, whether the investor was entitled to full compensation or a reasonable rate of return. In addition, it presents different approaches to perceiving the stability provision of Article 10 (1) of the ECT. The paper concludes that it remains uncertain to what extent RE investors will be protected under the ECT’s stability condition in the case of fundamental or small-scale changes. Although one group of arbitrators may argue that the fundamental change triggers per se a breach of a stability condition, others may argue that for the breach to be established, the host state’s measures must be arbitrary, unreasonable or discriminatory. Moreover, the threat to legal certainty might not only be the vague provisions of the ECT but also the significant discretion tribunals have towards the interpretation of facts, leading to different outcomes. Indeed, it is at the discretion of arbitrators to consider whether the timing of investment, presence of evidence indicating possible regulatory changes, and the reasonable rate of return prescribed in Spain’s domestic law will be relevant or irrelevant. Full article

Over the past few decades, Canadian courts have exerted strong influence over the meaning and operation of parliamentary privileges. Starting with a television producer’s Charter rights claim to access a provincial legislature’s public gallery and followed by an employment law claim made by the chauffeur to the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Supreme Court of Canada has articulated an approach under which judges closely scrutinise privileges invoked by legislatures when defending themselves against litigated claims. By applying the doctrine of necessity, Canadian courts make authoritative rulings on what counts as a valid legislative function and the processes and activities needed to fulfil those functions. Canadian courts also require the scope of parliamentary privileges to be pleaded in narrow terms that correspond to the details of a plaintiff’s claim, which has resulted in a hollowed-out conception of privilege over time. In scrutinising the necessity and scope of privilege, Canadian courts have chipped away at the separation of powers. Further, the Canadian approach unjustifiably prioritises the judicial vindication of private rights over the institutional needs of the legislature. Courts in other jurisdictions should reject the Canadian approach and avoid scrutinising the propriety of the exercise of privilege through a necessity test. Instead, courts should engage in a more limited jurisdictional test to confirm the availability of a relevant category of parliamentary privilege in law or historical practice. Judicialising parliamentary privileges weakens the autonomy and vitality of legislative institutions, with the Canadian approach serving as a cautionary tale. Ultimately, the legislature is accountable to the electorate for the exercise of its privileges. To promote fairness and reduce the risk of court interference, parliaments should strengthen the accountability and transparency associated with the exercise of their privileges, including by developing guidelines for their appropriate use. Full article