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29 pages, 6680 KiB

Open AccessReview

Liquid Nanoclay: Synthesis and Applications to Transform an Arid Desert into Fertile Land

by Kamel A. Abd-Elsalam, Mirza Abid Mehmood, Muhammad Ashfaq, Toka E. Abdelkhalek, Rawan K. Hassan and Mythili Ravichandran

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030073 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 367

Abstract

Nanoclay, a processed clay, is utilized in numerous high-performance cement nanocomposites. This clay consists of minerals such as kaolinite, illite, chlorite, and smectite, which are the primary components of raw clay materials formed in the presence of water. In addition to silica, alumina, and water, it also contains various concentrations of inorganic ions like Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and Ca²⁺. These are categorized as hydrous phyllosilicates and can be located either in interlayer spaces or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are distinguished by their two-dimensional sheets and tetrahedral (SiO₄) and octahedral (Al₂O₃) crystal structures. Different clay minerals are classified based on the presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layers in their structure. These include kaolinite, which has a 1:1 ratio of tetrahedral to octahedral layers, the smectite group of clay minerals and chlorite with a 2:1 ratio. Clay minerals are unique due to their small size, distinct crystal structure, and properties such as high cation exchange capacity, adsorption capacity, specific surface area, and swelling behavior. These characteristics are discussed in this review. The use of nanoclays as nanocarriers for fertilizers boasts a diverse array of materials available in both anionic and cationic variations. Layered double hydroxides (LDH) possess a distinctive capacity for exchanging anions, making them suitable for facilitating the transport of borate, phosphate, and nitrate ions. Liquid nanoclays are used extensively in agriculture, specifically as fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and nutrients. These novel nanomaterials have numerous benefits, including improved nutrient use, controlled nutrient release, targeted nutrient delivery, and increased agricultural productivity. Arid regions face distinct challenges like limited water availability, poor soil quality, and reduced productivity. The addition of liquid nanoclay to sandy soil offers a range of benefits that contribute to improved soil quality and environmental sustainability. Liquid nanoclay is being proposed for water management in arid regions, which will necessitate a detailed examination of soil, water availability, and hydrological conditions. Small-scale trial initiatives, engagement with local governments, and regular monitoring are required to fully comprehend its benefits and drawbacks. These developments would increase the practicality and effectiveness of using liquid nanoclay in desert agriculture. Full article

22 pages, 2177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Soil Environments and Wheat Production through Water Hyacinth Biochar under Deficit Irrigation in Ethiopian Acidic Silty Loam Soil

by Desalew Fentie, Fekremariam Asargew Mihretie, Yudai Kohira, Solomon Addisu Legesse, Mekuanint Lewoyehu and Shinjiro Sato

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030072 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 406

Abstract

The combined application of biochar and fertilizer has become increasingly popular for improving soil quality and crop productivity. However, the reported research results regarding the effects of biochar on soil properties and crop productivity have contradictory findings, indicating the requirement for further scientific research. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of a combined application of water hyacinth biochar (WHB) and NPS fertilizer on soil physicochemical properties and wheat yield under deficit irrigation conditions in acidic silty loam soil in Ethiopia. Four different biochar rates (0, 5, 10, and 20 t ha⁻¹), three fertilizer rates (0, 100, and 200 kg NPS ha⁻¹), and two irrigation regimes (50 and 100% of crop requirement) were evaluated to assess soil properties and wheat yields. The results showed that biochar amendment significantly reduced soil bulk density by 15.1–16.7%, and improved soil porosity by 6.8–8.6% and moisture content by 10.3–20.2%. Additionally, the combined application of biochar and fertilizer improved soil pH (0.26–0.87 units), NH₄⁺–N (73.7–144%), NO₃⁻–N (131–637%), and available phosphorus (85.8–427%), compared to the application of fertilizer alone. As a result, wheat dry biomass and grain yield increased by 260 and 173%, respectively. Furthermore, the combined application of WHB and fertilizer resulted in a comparable wheat dry biomass and grain yield even with a 50% reduction of irrigation water. Therefore, WHB has a significant potential to improve soil physicochemical properties and wheat yield when it is applied in combination with fertilizer, and it can reduce the water requirement for wheat production. Full article

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15 pages, 1506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Dissipation of Pesticides of Different Polarities in Soil Samples

by Carlos Eduardo Rodríguez-Palma, Pilar Campíns-Falcó and Rosa Herráez-Hernández

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030071 - 24 Jun 2024

Viewed by 274

Abstract

A methodology has been developed to assess the presence and dissipation of herbicides of a wide range of polarities in soil using in-tube solid-phase microextraction (IT-SPME) coupled online to capillary liquid chromatography (capLC). The compounds investigated were tritosulfuron (TRT), triflusulfuron-methyl (TRF), aclonifen (ACL), and bifenox (BF), with log octanol-water partition coefficients (log K_ow) ranging from 0.62 to 4.48. The method provided suitable linearity at concentration levels of 0.5–4.0 µg/g for TRT and TRF, and 0.2–1.0 µg/g for ACL and BF, and intra- and interday precision (expressed as relative standard deviation) ≤4% and ≤8%, respectively. The mean recoveries ranged from 90% to 101%, and the limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were in the intervals of 0.05–0.1 µg/g and 0.1–0.4 µg/g, respectively. The accuracy of the method was also satisfactory. The proposed approach was successfully applied to assess the degradation of the tested herbicides in different types of soil (agricultural, urban and forest) after being exposed to different laboratory and outdoor conditions. The results obtained showed a greater persistence of the most apolar compounds ACL and BF, with percentages of degraded herbicide ≤31% regardless of the soil characteristics. In contrast, a significant degradation of highly polar herbicides TRT and TRF was observed in soils with the lowest organic matter, even after a few days of exposure. For example, the percentages of remaining TRT and TRF in this kind of soil after 20 days were ≤65%; the half-life time of TRF was only 24.8 days. These results indicate that the proposed approach can be considered as an effective tool for a better understanding of soil pollution. Full article

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3 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies

by Jarosław Zawadzki

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030070 - 24 Jun 2024

Viewed by 249

Abstract

This Special Issue presents carefully selected examples of Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies)

32 pages, 1155 KiB

Open AccessReview

Using Date Palm Residues to Improve Soil Properties: The Case of Compost and Biochar

by Victor Kavvadias, Elie Le Guyader, Mohamed El Mazlouzi, Maxime Gommeaux, Belkacem Boumaraf, Mohamed Moussa, Hafouda Lamine, Mahtali Sbih, Ines Rahma Zoghlami, Kamel Guimeur, Aissa Tirichine, Abid Adelfettah, Beatrice Marin and Xavier Morvan

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030069 - 24 Jun 2024

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Agricultural residues are generated during the production and processing of agricultural crops. Under modern date palm plantation practices, field operations generate huge quantities of residues, which are discarded with little valorization. The date palm agro-industry produces significant amounts of waste. The accumulation of these residues can cause ecological damage to the oasis ecosystems. There is a lack of comprehensive data on long-term research studies that aim to assess the impact of date palm waste management practices. Composting and/or pyrolysis of date palm residues showed benefits for improving soil physical and chemical properties, particularly in sandy soils. This claim holds particular significance for arid and semi-arid regions, which are characterized by low fertility and are susceptible to soil degradation, accentuated by ongoing climate change. This review summarizes the existing literature concerning the valorization of date palm residues with regards to compost and pyrolysis processes, as well as the impact of their application on soil quality. Further research is required to assess the effects of using date palm residues for better soil amendment management. Research should focus on composting and biochar technologies for date palm residues and their application in arid and semi-arid regions to combat soil erosion and degradation. Increasing the beneficial uses of date palm residues could lead to sustainable and economic growth in dry areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Bioremediation)

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14 pages, 4440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Mixed Amendments of CaCO₃/Na₂SO₄ Ratio on the pH Buffer Capacity and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage of Soils with Contrasting Properties

by Dante Pinochet, Carolina Romero, Fernando Ramírez and John Clunes

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030068 - 21 Jun 2024

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Reusing the by-products from wood pulp processing can promote the efficient use of resources. In this sense, the objective of this research was to determine the agronomic efficiency of CaCO₃ and Na₂SO₄ by-products from wood pulp processing to establish criteria for their use and avoid undesirable side effects when applying these materials to the soil. Six treatments in proportions of 1; 0.9; 0.75; 0.5, 0.25, and 0, of CaCO₃/Na₂SO₄, respectively, were incubated at a constant temperature and humidity for 15 days. The first proportion consisted of 100% CaCO₃, while M1 mixed 90% CaCO₃ and 10% Na₂SO₄, M2: 75% CaCO₃ and 25% Na₂SO₄, M3: 50% CaCO₃ and 50% Na₂SO₄, M4: 25% CaCO₃ and 75% Na₂SO₄, with the last proportion comprised of 100% Na₂SO₄. Samples of 40 g from two soil series, Licantén (Inceptisol) and San José (Andisol), were used. The rates applied for each treatment were 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 g of material per kg of dry soil. At the end of the incubation period, pH in water, pH in CaCl₂, exchange bases (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺ and Na⁺) and extractable sulfur were determined. The results showed that the San José soil had a pH buffering capacity three times higher than that of the Licantén soil. The linear increase in pH was thus explained by the soil type in relation to the applied rate of CaCO₃. The analysis of the increase in the exchangeable Na percentage (ESP) showed that the soils increased up to about 70% of their ESP with the highest added rate of Na₂SO₄. The application of a mixture of 25% Na₂SO₄ and 75% CaCO₃ resulted in an increase in the ESP close to 15%; therefore, it is not recommended to use mixtures with a Na₂SO₄ content higher than 25% in these soils. Finally, we affirm that for M2 the maximum recommended dose for application should be 4 Mg ha⁻¹, i.e., 3 g of material per kg of soil. Full article

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20 pages, 3535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glutamic-N,N-Diacetic Acid as an Innovative Chelating Agent in Microfertilizer Development: Biodegradability, Lettuce Growth Promotion, and Impact on Endospheric Bacterial Communities

by Gulnaz Galieva, Polina Kuryntseva, Svetlana Selivanovskaya, Vasiliy Brusko, Bulat Garifullin, Ayrat Dimiev and Polina Galitskaya

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020067 - 15 Jun 2024

Viewed by 320

Abstract

The search for new biodegradable fertilizers to increase the productivity of agricultural plants is an urgent task. In this study, a complex microfertilizer was developed based on a chelating agent—glutamic-N,N-diacetic acid (GLDA). The evaluation encompassed assessments of biodegradability and effectiveness in fostering lettuce plant growth in hydroponic and conventional soil settings. The impact on endospheric bacteria, a sensitive indicator, was also examined. Results indicated a 59.8% degradation rate of the GLDA complex on the 28th day. The most notable positive effects were observed in above-ground plant biomass, with a 4.6-fold increase for hydroponics and 1.5 to 1.8-fold increases for root and foliar treatments in soil. In hydroponics, GLDA-treated plants showed 24 and 45 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) for leaves and 272 and 258 for roots (GLDA-treated and control plants). In soil, the OTU counts were 270 and 101, 221 and 111, and 198 and 116 in the leaves and roots of GLDA-treated and control plants (under root and foliar treatments), respectively. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) demonstrated significant distinctions in endospheric communities between substrates (hydroponics and soil) in the presence of GLDA. Importantly, GLDA use simplified the composition of endospheric bacterial communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Fertilizer Technologies and Use to Improve Nutrient Efficiency and Minimize Environmental Impacts)

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19 pages, 8003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic and Environmental Assessment of Variable Rate Nitrogen Application in Potato by Fusion of Online Visible and Near Infrared (Vis-NIR) and Remote Sensing Data

by Muhammad Qaswar, Danyal Bustan and Abdul Mounem Mouazen

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020066 - 14 Jun 2024

Viewed by 362

Abstract

Addressing within-field spatial variability for nitrogen (N) management to avoid over and under-use of nitrogen is crucial for optimizing crop productivity and ensuring environmental sustainability. In this study, we investigated the economic, environmental, and agronomic benefits of variable rate nitrogen application in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). An online visible and near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy sensor was utilized to predict soil moisture content (MC), pH, total organic carbon (TOC), extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) using a partial least squares regression (PLSR) models. The crop’s normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from Sentinel-2 satellite images was incorporated into online measured soil data to derive fertility management zones (MZs) maps after homogenous raster and clustering analyses. The MZs maps were categorized into high fertile (VR-H), medium–high fertile (VR-MH), medium–low fertile (VR-ML), and low fertile (VR-L) zones. A parallel strip experiment compared variable rate nitrogen (VR-N) with uniform rate (UR) treatments, adjusting nitrogen levels based on fertility zones as 50% less for VR-H, 25% less for VR-MH, 25% more for VR-ML, and 50% more for VR-L zones compared to the UR treatment. The results showed that the VR-H zone received a 50% reduction in N fertilizer input and demonstrated a significantly higher crop yield compared to the UR treatment. This implies a potential reduction in negative environmental impact by lowering fertilizer costs while maintaining robust crop yields. In total, the VR-N treatment received an additional 1.2 Kg/ha of nitrogen input, resulting in a crop yield increase of 1.89 tons/ha. The relative gross margin for the VR-N treatment compared to the UR treatment is 374.83 EUR/ha, indicating substantial profitability for the farmer. To further optimize environmental benefits and profitability, additional research is needed to explore site-specific applications of all farm resources through precision agricultural technologies. Full article

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21 pages, 21714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks and Soil Organic Matter Persistence under Native Vegetation along a Topographic and Vegetation Gradient in the Central Amazon Region

by Melania Merlo Ziviani, Érika Flávia Machado Pinheiro, Marcos Bacis Ceddia, Ana Carolina Souza Ferreira and Frederico Santos Machado

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020065 - 13 Jun 2024

Viewed by 706

Abstract

The Amazon Forest has a soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) potential of 126 to 141 Tg year⁻¹ and it depends on soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation factors and stabilization mechanisms. This study aimed to evaluate SOCS, soil nitrogen stocks (SNS), SOM fractions under the Amazon Forest along a topographic and vegetation gradient (Terra Firme, River Plain, and Terraces), and to evaluate the main mechanisms responsible for SOM stabilization. The study was developed using 35 study points (35 profiles) in Coari County, Amazon State, Brazil. In each profile, soil samples were collected from soil horizon for soil analysis. Of the 35 soil profiles, 10 were selected to evaluate the contribution of free light fractions (FLF) and intra-aggregate light fractions (ILF), C and N contents, and SOCS and SNS up to 1 m soil depth. SOCS and SNS are influenced by topographic and vegetation gradient, being statistically equal in the Terra Firme and River Plains areas (median of 92.5 and 92.2 Mg C ha⁻¹, respectively), but Terraces presented a greater median (157.9 Mg C ha⁻¹). There are relationships between SOCS and SNS and C, N, Al, clay content, t value, FLF, and ILF. SOCS, SNS, and SOM stabilization in Amazon soils are influenced by soil properties and landscape position. SOCS in the Terrace is mainly in FLF form. If vegetation cover loss continues, an amount of up to 98.05 Mg C ha⁻¹ of FLF can be lost, causing soil degradation and global warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter: Recent Advancements in Exploring Its Dynamics, Stabilization and Prediction)

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16 pages, 2210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ciliated Protist Communities in Soil: Contrasting Patterns in Natural Sites and Arable Lands across Italy

by Daizy Bharti, Santosh Kumar, Charan Kumar Basuri and Antonietta La Terza

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020064 - 13 Jun 2024

Viewed by 395

Abstract

This study represents the first investigation of soil ciliate diversity and community structure in the Marche region, Italy, encompassing both natural sites and agro-ecosystems. The main aims were (i) to assess the ability of ciliates to discriminate between different types of land uses, i.e., arable lands and possible farming management practices [organic (ORG) vs. conventional (CON)], and forest (FOR) sites; and (ii) to investigate the relationships among ciliate communities and abiotic parameters at the studied sites. Soil samples were collected twice from 10 sites (5 forest (FOR) (natural soils) and 5 arable lands under different agricultural management systems (3 ORG (minimum tillage) and 2 CON (sod seeding)). Ciliate communities were studied using qualitative (non-flooded Petri dish) and quantitative methods (ciliate counts from permanent slides). Soil chemical–physical (texture, CEC, N, OM, C/N) parameters were also measured. Qualitative ciliate analysis allowed us to identify a total of 59 species representing 33 genera, 20 families, 13 orders, and 7 classes. ORG sites were the richest in species followed by CON and FOR. Multivariate analysis showed statistically significant differences between natural sites (FOR) and agricultural sites, and between ORG and CON management farming systems. CCA analysis revealed a positive correlation between the ciliate species and silt, clay, and pH in ORG sites, and sand, organic carbon, organic matter, total nitrogen, C/N ratio, and CEC (cation exchange capacity) in FOR sites, suggesting the significance of these parameters in shaping the ciliate communities. Altogether, these results showed the bioindicative potential of ciliate communities in discriminating between natural sites (FOR) and arable lands, and their capacity to discriminate, at least preliminarily, between different soil management systems (ORG vs. CON). Furthermore, this study highlights the high diversity of soil ciliates and their response to habitat variability. Full article

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Abstract

Potentiometric titration in a fast and simultaneously high-resolution modality was proposed for the identification and quantification of protolytic groups of variable strength at the surface of primary soil particles. The method is implemented by titrimetric data processing as multicomponent spectra (pK_a spectrotitrimetry). Due to the high resolution, the error of acidity-constant assessment (3–5%) is lower, compared to existing approaches; due to the fast titration, the effect of soil hydrolysis is minimized. The soil profiles for acidic Retisols (podzolic soils)—under a spruce crown and in the intercrown space—were studied. These soils, which have similar bulk properties and genesis but developed under different plant covers, were distinguished by pK_a spectral features at 4–5; 5.5–6.5; 6.5–8.5; 7.5–8.5; and 9–10, as well as total group concentrations. Differences in acidic and basic-group distribution (carboxyl groups, amorphous aluminosilicates, carbonate species, amino groups, soluble (poly)phenolic compounds, phospholipids) and Al and Fe complex compounds within the same soil profiles and between two Retisols were found and quantified. The acidity constants and group concentrations found by pK_a spectrotitrimetry were compared with conventional soil-composition indicators (total organic carbon, oxalate-soluble Fe and Al, and phosphorus), using principal component analysis. The main correlations are between the concentrations of oxalate-soluble Al and groups with pK_a values of 5.0–6.5 and 8.5; oxalate-soluble Fe and pK_a values of 9.0–10.0; and P₂O₅ and pK_a values of 4.0–6.0 and 6.5–8.5. The method provides a set of major acidity values without a priori information on a soil sample and can be used for screening and identifying similar soils. Full article

11 pages, 1977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Verification of the Solid–Liquid Separation of Waterlogged Reduced Soil via a Centrifugal Filtration Method

by Shatabdi Saha, Kumi Watanabe, Tomoyuki Makino, Hitoshi Kanno, Kazuhiko Kimura and Shin-Ichi Yamasaki

Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020061 - 30 May 2024

Viewed by 398

Abstract

The efficient separation of solid and liquid phases of soil under reductive conditions is of the utmost importance to study soil chemistry and to predict the mobility and bioavailability of nutrients and toxic contaminants in waterlogged reduced soils (WRSs). However, there is no established method for efficiently separating the solid and liquid phases of WRS within a short time while maintaining its reductive conditions. This study aimed to verify the applicability of a simple centrifugal filtration method (CFM) for the efficient separation of solid and liquid phases of a WRS and examine the CFM-extracted soil solution to confirm that the reductive condition was maintained during the solid–liquid separation process. Incubation experiments were performed under reductive conditions with or without ethanol/molasses used as additional organic material (OM), while the soil solution was collected by both a suction method and CFM at different centrifugation speeds (700, 2760, and 11,000 rpm) and times (1–7 min). The results showed that the soil pH increased with time while the Eh decreased, indicating that its reducing state was enhanced during the incubation experiments. The addition of OM promoted the reductive conditions in the first days of the experiments. Centrifugation speed, rather than time, was found to be the key to extract the maximum amount of soil solution, while a higher centrifugation speed (11,000 rpm), which represents the permanent wilting point, was found to be most effective for extracting the maximum amount of soil solution. The results exhibited no significant difference in solute (As, Fe(II), and Mn) concentrations when varying amounts of CFM-extracted soil solution were measured. The statistical analysis also indicated no significant (p > 0.05) difference between the solute concentrations in the CFM-extracted soil solution and the solute concentrations in the soil solution extracted by the suction method, confirming that the reductive condition was maintained during solid–liquid separation by CFM. This study suggests that CFM operating at a higher centrifugation speed could potentially be employed as a simple and highly effective technique to efficiently separate the solid and liquid phases of WRS (sandy clay loam) within a short time while maintaining its reductive conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments)

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