Barking up the same tree: a comparison of ethnomedicine and canine ethnoveterinary medicine among the Aguaruna

Abstract

Background

Ethnoveterinary medicine has seen increasing recognition as a distinct area of study since the publication of two important review articles on the subject [1,2]. Recent research has addressed a broad range of topics within this field, including plant-based [3,4] and non plant-based [5] preparations, folk categories of illness [6], efficacy of treatments [7] and zoopharmacognosy [8,9]. A large majority of the work has been on ruminants, including sheep [6,10], cows [5] and camels [11]. This trend is not surprising, considering the economic importance of ruminants in many societies.

However, studies focusing on remedies for hunting dogs are largely lacking. In one notable exception, Lans et al [12] studied hunters' remedies in Trinidad. The authors list 36 plant species and three animals used either to improve dogs' ability to track and catch game, or to treat common injuries such as snake bite, mange and sprains. A few other authors have included data on dog medicines within larger studies. Glenn Shepard [13,14] describes the use of psychoactive and other medicinal preparations among the Matsigenka of Peru. Im Thurn's [15] classic ethnography of indigenous peoples of Guiana includes several brief examples of hunting charms. The present study aims to contribute in a small way to the further development of this important but understudied aspect of ethnoveterinary medicine.

The research focuses on the plants that the Aguaruna Jívaro of Peru use for treating dogs and examines whether people use the same ones in the same way to treat themselves. As in many lowland South America societies [16,17], dogs play a key role in hunting for the Aguaruna. They serve the secondary purposes of guarding homes, and to some extent, companionship. Dogs help to track and capture the following game animals: Paca (Cuniculus paca, kashai in Aguaruna), Agouti (Dasyprocta spp., kayuk), Acouchi (Myoprocta prattii, yugkits), various armadillos (Dasypus spp., shushui) (Figure ​(Figure1),1), White-lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari, yugkipak), Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu, paki), Southern Amazon Red Squirrel (Sciurus spadiceus, waiwash), Gold Tegu (Tupinambis teguixin, iwan), and various species of turtle (kugkuim).

Open in a separate window

Figure 1

One key informant, Agustin T. with small breed of dog used for hunting armadillos.

Due to decreasing availability of preferred game species, people in the study communities now also hunt some animals that they did not formerly. These include Red Brocket Deer (Mazama americana, japa), considered one of the forms that the soul of deceased person can take, and Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris, pabau), thought to be dirty because they defecate in water.

The Aguaruna traditionally hunted with uum -- 'blowguns' and still do rarely. They put tseas -- poison made from local plants in the genera Potalia and Strychnos (Loganiaceae) on the darts [18]. When a hunter would hit an animal, especially a large one, it would often run for a distance before the poison took full effect. Dogs would track down the body. Currently, most hunters use guns and dogs still play a role tracking wounded animals. When a dog is chasing an animal, the owners encourage it by shouting after it. Men yell "esaisaik," but women say "estai." To call the dog back, they shout "biaag, biaag and the dog's name."

Informants described how dogs learn to hunt animals. Young dogs start by chasing after small birds, and begin pursuing agoutis, as they grow. Mature dogs tend to stick with one particular animal, although they can be trained to change their focus. Accordingly, Aguaruna families try to keep five to eight dogs to hunt a variety of game. Im Thurn [15] notes that indigenous peoples of Guiana also trained each dog they owned to hunt a specific animal.

Dogs play an important role in trapping animals inside their dens. The success of this technique depends on the animal in question. Agoutis and armadillos, for example, remain in their burrows, and the hunter digs them out with a sharp stick. Pacas are more difficult to trap this way, because they emerge quickly and, being adept swimmers, head for streams or lakes. Aguaruna informants explained that paca dens have three holes, so they can always escape out one.

In the course of hunting, dogs commonly suffer from cuts and skin infections. They can be injured by some animals, particularly pacas, peccary and Ring-tailed Coati (Nassua nassua, kushi) [18], as well as dapi -- 'venomous snakes' and a variety of wasps and ants. Dogs are also prone to parasites and other digestive ailments that interfere with their hunting ability.

This work aims to address hunting medicines within the larger framework of Aguaruna ethnomedicine. McCorkle [1] points out that ethnoveterinary studies have not often compared medicines given to animals with those given to people, even though it seems natural to do so. Wanzala et al [2] also argue for the need to make the study of ethnomedicine and ethnoveterinary medicine complementary. Hirschkind [5: 290] notes, from her work in highland Ecuador, that " [d]omestic animals are understood to share many human characteristics, needs and desires." Gradé et al [19] argue that sheep owned by Karamojong pastoralists of Uganda self medicate by grazing on certain local plant species. Part of their argument rests on the fact that the Karamojong use many of the same species medicinally themselves.

The idea for the present study came while I was doing research for my dissertation [20], on the subject of how Aguaruna men identify trees. I was struck by the fact that tree species reported to have a medicinal effect for people were also often said to be useful for treating dogs. Indeed many of the kinds of illness that hunting dogs commonly suffer, such as gastrointestinal problems, cuts and snake bites are also common problems for human hunters. I began to wonder whether people always give dogs the same remedies that they take themselves or whether there are some medicines only for dogs.

Although dogs are known to have been present in some locations in coastal and highland South America before European contact [21], there is no such evidence for the upper Marañón, where the Aguaruna live. More generally, dogs are usually assumed to be a Spanish introduction in the Amazon basin [22]. If dog medicines represent a fairly recent domain of knowledge for the Aguaruna, it would seem reasonable to assume that this domain is highly derived from Aguaruna ethnomedicine in general. Accordingly, this research tests the following hypotheses: H1 -- Plants that the Aguaruna use to treat dogs will be the same plants that they use to treat people and H2 -- Plants that are used to treat both people and dogs will be used for the same illnesses in both cases.

Methods

Some preliminary work for this project was carried out in 2004, in the Peruvian department of Amazonas, in the Aguaruna communities of Bajo Cachiaco and Wichim, on the Nieva and upper Marañón rivers, respectively (Figure ​(Figure2).2). The main portion of the study took place in the same two communities during fall, 2007. Study communities are in the eastern foothills of the Andes, at elevations range from 230 m to 500 m above sea level, with nearby mountains up to 1000 m or so [23]. The sites include tropical wet forest and premontane tropical rainforest [24]. Both participating communities have a largely subsistence based economy involving swidden horticulture and supplemented extensively by raising of livestock, gathering of wild plants, fishing and hunting of birds and game [25].

Open in a separate window

Figure 2

Map of the study area.

Nine Aguaruna informants (eight men and one woman) took part in interviews and two Aguaruna field assistants worked with me to further clarify and add to those data. I obtained verbal prior informed consent (PIC) from each participant, and the research followed ethical guidelines adopted by the American Anthropological Association [26].

For each interview, I obtained a freelist of relevant plants by asking 'Wait aneasam adaikata ashi ikamnum ayau yawaa jakui tsuamatai'. -- 'Please tell me all the plants you know that are good for treating sickness in dogs.' Informants mentioned 34 plants total. One person also described several (unidentified) species of wasp larvae. The average freelist had nine plants. For each plant named, I asked informants to describe the canine illnesses or conditions it is used to treat and the preparation method, including part used and route of ingestion. I also asked the same questions regarding any uses for people. I gained additional information about dog medicines and hunting practices in informal conversations with community members and by accompanying them during hunting trips in the forest. Botanical voucher specimens were collected for 29 plants. These were deposited in the herbarium of the Universidad Nacional Mayor San Marcos. Ethnobotanical data from Berlin [27] and collaborators helped to clarify the botanical identity of four additional species, while another remains uncollected. Finally, one plant name corresponds to mosses in general, so no collection was made.

Results and Discussion

Informants mentioned 34 plants, corresponding to nineteen botanical families, given to dogs to improve their hunting ability or to treat illness. I will discuss plants of the former category in the first subsection. The second subsection deals with five types of digestive problems, while the last discusses treatment for ten miscellaneous illnesses.

Medicines for Improving Hunting Ability

The most common reason for giving dogs plant-based preparations was kuntinu shiig maatitusan --'in order to hunt animals well' (Table ​(Table1).1). Some plants in this category are placed in the dog's nose and mouth to clean out solid white mucous deposits and heavy saliva that hinder their ability to smell game animals (Figure ​(Figure3).3). Many of these are strong smelling species in the Bignoniaceae, Lauraceae, Piperaceae and Zingiberaceae. Aguaruna hunting dogs tend to suffer from ant and wasp bites that cause their eyes to cloud over, making their sense of smell all the more essential for finding animals. Informants also stated that dogs can lose their sense of smell, if someone lets chickens eat a piece of meat from any animal hunted by dogs.

Open in a separate window

Figure 3

Ampagpag (Piper sp.) being administered nasally to improve hunting ability.

Table 1

Plants used to improve hunting ability

Family	Species	Vouch.	Aguaruna Name	Parts Used	Administration Method	SUPa
Acanthaceae	not determined	J305	tsumbaik	roots, leaves	fed	y-
Apocynaceae	Tabernaemontana sananho Ruiz & Pav	J291	kunakip	bark, roots	inhaled in mouth, nose, fed	y-
Araceae	Caladium sp.	J297	ushu	leaves	fed	n
Araceae	Dracontium sp.	J293	uchi santanik	roots	fed	n
Bignoniaceae	Mansoa sp.	J298	kaep	leaves, roots, bark, stem tips	inhaled in mouth, nose, fed	y+
Cyperaceae	Cyperus sp.	J296	yawaa pijipij	roots	fed	n
Lamiaceae	not determined	J299	chiujip	leaves	fed	y+
Lauraceae	Nectandra cuneatocordata Mez	J171	mantaga	roots	inhaled in mouth, nose	n
Lecythidaceae	Couroupita subsessilis Pilg.	J68	shishim	bark	inhaled in mouth, nose	y+
Piperaceae	Piper sp.	J294	ampagpag	roots, leaves	inhaled in mouth, nose, fed	y+
Piperaceae	Piper sp.	J320	shishig	leaves	fed	n
Zingiberaceae	not determined	J317	chiag	leaves	inhaled in mouth	n
-	uncollected	-	chijum	leaves	fed	y-
-	larvae of various wasps	-			fed	n

Open in a separate window

^a SUP = same use for people, 'n' indicates a plant use unique to dogs, 'y-' indicates a use common to dogs and people, but with a differing route of administration for each, 'y+' indicates a plant used for the same illness and administered in the same way for both dogs and people same way for both dogs and people

Other plants in this category are stimulating and are fed to dogs, or mixed in with their normal food. The plants kaep (Mansoa sp.) and kunakip (Tabernaemontana sananho) are a noteworthy combination, because they are said to be waimatai -- 'vision producing.' Human hunters also ingest this same mix. The Matsigenka of the southern Peruvian Amazon also give dogs preparations with Mansoa species, but do so for different reasons. They say that the strong odor of the plant is similar to the musky smell of peccaries, a favoured game animal [14].

One Aguaruna informant said that the strongly psychoactive baikua (Brugmansia sp.) can be given to dogs in an enema so that they will have visions of the animals they will kill. Other psychoactives that play an important role in Aguaruna culture include datem (Banisteriopsis spp.) and tsaag (Nicotiana spp.) [28], but those were not mentioned among plants given to dogs.

A few plants in this category are not given to people for any illness or condition. Those are uchi santanik (Dracontium sp.), ushu (Caladium sp.), chiujip (an undetermined Lamiaceae) and yawaa pijipij (Cyperus sp.). Im Thurn [15] describes a similar use of Caladium species as beenas or hunting charms fed to dogs among Carib speakers of Guiana. Aguaruna informants recognize ten or so different folk species of pijipij (Cyperus sp.). Most serve to treat specific illnesses in people. Only yawaa 'dog' pijipij is specifically for dogs. One person also mentioned chigki 'bird' chiujip, a folk species of that plant given only to people to help them hunt birds. To prevent dogs from being afraid of the animals they hunt, they are tied up and fed larvae of several unidentified wasp species.

Conclusion

The domain of canine ethnoveterinary medicine appears to be significantly influenced by Aguaruna ethnomedicine in general. However, some plants and treatments are unique to dogs, especially in the area of improving hunting ability. Striking cross cultural similarities in canine medicine between the Aguaruna and other Amazonian cultures raise the question of the relative contribution of independent discovery vs. diffusion in the creation of this knowledge, which appears to postdate European contact [21,22].

Future research into Aguaruna canine ethnoveterinary medicine could explore in more detail how dogs' bodies are thought to function, specifically asking whether they have the same internal organs and physiological processes as people. With this background, one could ask more detailed questions about the pathophysiology of diseases. The fact that the Aguaruna give dogs potentially mind-altering plants to make them better hunters also raises questions about how the Aguaruna view the subjective sensory experiences of dogs [16]. Additionally, more work could be done specifically on the human side of hunting [14,33], looking at magical remedies that the Aguaruna themselves take to improve their hunting ability.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no competing interests.

Acknowledgements

References