Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice
This article has been retracted.
Gastrin-releasing peptide blockade as a broad-spectrum anti-inflammatory therapy for asthma
Associated Data
Abstract
Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is synthesized by pulmonary neuroendocrine cells in inflammatory lung diseases, such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Many BPD infants develop asthma, a serious disorder of intermittent airway obstruction. Despite extensive research, early mechanisms of asthma remain controversial. The incidence of asthma is growing, now affecting >300 million people worldwide. To test the hypothesis that GRP mediates asthma, we used two murine models: ozone exposure for air pollution-induced airway hyperreactivity (AHR), and ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic airway disease. BALB/c mice were given small molecule GRP blocking agent 77427, or GRP blocking antibody 2A11, before exposure to ozone or OVA challenge. In both models, GRP blockade abrogated AHR and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) macrophages and granulocytes, and decreased BAL cytokines implicated in asthma, including those typically derived from Th1 (e.g., IL-2, TNFα), Th2 (e.g., IL-5, IL-13), Th17 (IL-17), macrophages (e.g., MCP-1, IL-1), and neutrophils (KC = IL-8). Dexamethasone generally had smaller effects on all parameters. Macrophages, T cells, and neutrophils express GRP receptor (GRPR). GRP blockade diminished serine phosphorylation of GRPR with ozone or OVA. Thus, GRP mediates AHR and airway inflammation in mice, suggesting that GRP blockade is promising as a broad-spectrum therapeutic approach to treat and/or prevent asthma in humans.
Inflammation is a universal process of host defense whereby leukocytes react to noxious stimuli including microorganisms, toxins, and mechanical stress. However, the host response itself can be the primary cause of tissue injury, as in viral hepatitis or rheumatic fever (1).
Despite extensive research on mechanisms and treatment of asthma, it remains unclear why asthma is increasing in incidence, afflicting 300 million people worldwide (2), with ∼30 million in the United States, where it causes 5,000 deaths annually (3). Despite optimal medical management, many asthmatics are treatment-resistant and/or have progressive disease (4). For example, β-agonists can paradoxically cause clinical decline (5). Disease diversity is attributed to gene–environment interactions, potentially involving hundreds of asthma-associated genes (2), but few are related to known mechanisms of airway disease.
Many acute and chronic inflammatory lung diseases are associated with pulmonary neuroendocrine cell (PNEC) hyperplasia and/or elevated levels of PNEC-derived peptides (6). Approximately 50% of infants with BPD later develop asthma (7, 8), a serious disorder of intermittent airway obstruction, with the greatest resistance arising in small airways. Asthmatic exacerbations can be triggered by allergens, pollution, or infections (2), leading to structural remodeling (9) involving mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 lymphocytes (CD4+ T cells) (10), which produce cytokines and mediators (11). Neuropeptides from sensory nerve fibers, such as substance P, can elicit “neurogenic inflammation” (12), mainly linked to neutrophilic inflammation and vascular leakage, possibly contributing to bronchoconstriction (13, 14). Cigarette smoke elicits nonspecific AHR to substance P in guinea pigs, which is of unclear significance to asthma in humans (15).
PNECs are airway epithelial cells that secrete bioactive neuropeptides including gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), homologous to amphibian bombesin. In lung, only PNECs produce GRP (16). GRP is present at high levels in human and mouse fetal lung (17, 18), and GRP regulates normal development (18, 19). However, excessive GRP can promote disease (20). Several observations led to our hypothesis that GRP contributes to asthma. Bombesin and GRP are potent, immediate bronchoconstrictors, 10-fold more potent than substance P and 100-fold more than histamine in vitro (21, 22). In guinea pigs, systemic immunization elicits PNEC hyperplasia, and PNEC degranulation follows aerosol challenge (23). Adults with primary idiopathic PNEC hyperplasia have secondary increased AHR (24). Children with primary PNEC hyperplasia, termed neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of infancy (NEHI), have air trapping and elevated airways reactivity (25). GRP levels double in premature newborns that later develop BPD (6, 20, 26). GRP blockade abrogates acute and chronic lung injury in baboon models of BPD (6, 20). GRP as a mediator of lung injury in BPD is relevant to asthma because BPD patients have ≈5- to 10-fold increased risk for developing asthma (7, 8).
We reasoned that asthmatics with PNEC hyperplasia could have symptoms unresponsive to conventional treatment. Classical inflammatory responses in asthma include both the innate and adaptive immune systems (2), triggered by allergens, irritants, smoke, viruses, and other agents. GRP induces host responses typical of asthma, including mast cell chemotaxis, macrophage migration, and proliferation of T cells and fibroblasts (27–31). GRP receptor (GRPR) is expressed by peribronchiolar fibroblasts (32). All these cell types contribute to acute and/or chronic asthma (2).
We tested our hypothesis that GRP mediates asthma by using two distinct mouse models of AHR and airways inflammation: ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AHR and eosinophilic inflammation as a model for allergic asthma, and ozone-induced AHR and neutrophilic inflammation as a model for asthma triggered by air pollution (33). Asthma is a human disease defined functionally (physiologically) as intermittent airway obstruction. We used two different GRP blocking agents in studying responses to air pollution versus allergen.
Results
We tested whether GRP blockade alters AHR and airways inflammation by using BALB/c females, which respond to both O3 and OVA (34, 35). Females are preferred because they have higher levels of X-linked GRPR (36). A flexiVent apparatus was used to carry out PFTs on mice previously exposed to O3 (34). These models have been optimized and validated in multiple publications (34). We observed significant O3-induced AHR, with airway resistance increasing from ∼0.7 up to 1.8–2.6 cm H2O/mL/s (Fig. 1 and Fig. S1), representing 157–271% increased airway resistance over filtered air (FA) controls at baseline. This model has been used successfully in multiple laboratories (34, 37, 38). A recent report (39) showed the kinetics (6-48 h after exposure) of inflammation and robust AHR development to methacholine (MCh) 24 h after O3.
GRP blockade abrogates O3-induced AHR and inflammation. (A and B) PFTs on BALB/C mice exposed to O3 or FA, using the flexiVent system. Mice given 77427 (A) or 2A11 (B) before O3 had decreased airway resistance at higher MCh doses (25 or 100 mg/mL). *P < 0.01, **P < 0.05, n = 8. (C and D) Pretreatment with 77427 (C) or 2A11(D) reduced numbers of BAL macrophages and PMN induced by O3.*P < 0.01, n = 8.
Dose–response studies showed that 500 nM 77427 is optimal for PFTs and BAL cell analysis (Fig. S1). Subsequently, mice received 77427 (500 nM IP, n = 8 per experiment) or vehicle (PBS, n = 8). Half the groups were exposed to O3 (77427+O3, n = 4; PBS+O3, n = 4) or FA (77427+FA, n = 4; PBS+FA, n = 4). Data from two experiments are pooled in Fig. 1. Mice given PBS+O3 had increased AHR (P = 0.011 at 25 mg/mL MCh and P = 0.0035 at 100 mg/mL MCh, compared with PBS+FA). In contrast, 77427 given before O3 abrogated AHR (P = 0.010 at 25 mg/mL MCh and P = 0.034 at 100 mg/mL, comparing PBS+O3 to 77427+O3). Thus, 77427 normalized O3-increased airway resistance (Fig. 1A) and associated decreased compliance (Fig. S2).
To validate the GRP specificity of 77427 effects, identical experiments were performed by using monoclonal anti-GRP/bombesin IgG1 antibody (2A11) or isotype-matched IgG1 negative control, MOPC21 (MOPC). Shown in Fig. 1B, O3-induced AHR was elevated in mice given MOPC (P < 0.05 at 25 mg/mL MCh and P < 0.01 at 100 mg/mL MCh), whereas 2A11 reduced AHR (P < 0.03 comparing MOPC+O3 to 2A11+O3). Decreased compliance in O3+FA mice was also normalized by 2A11, but this increase was only a trend (P = 0.08–0.10) (Fig. S2). We then quantified BAL cells from O3-exposed mice as a measure of the intensity of airway inflammation. Mice given 77427 (Fig. 1C) or 2A11 (Fig. 1D) had fewer macrophages and neutrophils (PMN) than controls (PBS or MOPC, P < 0.002). MOPC is the ideal isotype (IgG1)-matched negative control for 2A11, controlling for nonspecific protein binding and effects from Fc-gamma receptor binding (40, 41).
To determine whether O3-induced AHR is mediated via GRPR, we compared GRPR-KO mice and WT littermates. Whereas WT mice respond with elevated AHR 24 h after O3 exposure, GRPR-KO mice do not respond above baseline to O3 (Fig. S1C).
We then tested whether GRP has a role in the OVA model of allergic airways disease (35). OVA-immunized mice given PBS followed by OVA challenges (OVA/OVA) had the greatest increase in AHR to MCh at 25 and 100 mg/mL (P = 0.01 and 0.00004, respectively; Fig. 2A). The 77427 given IP once before the OVA challenges reduced OVA/OVA-induced AHR to baseline levels (P < 0.006 comparing OVA/PBS/OVA to OVA/77427/OVA; P > 0.175 comparing OVA/77427/OVA to other experimental groups). In contrast, 77427 given during the sensitization phase (D1, D7, D14) had no effect on OVA/OVA-induced AHR in BALB/c mice.
GRP blockade abrogates OVA-induced AHR and inflammation. (A and B) Pretreatment with 77427 (A) reduced airway resistance to MCh induced by OVA down to baseline. *P < 0.01, n = 8. (B) Treatment with 2A11 showed a similar pattern of responsiveness that was a statistical trend (0.10> P > 0.05). (C and D) OVA/OVA mice pretreated with 77427 (C) or 2A11 (D) had fewer BAL macrophages, PMN, and eosinophils. *P < 0.01, **P < 0.05, n = 8.
Specificity of 77427 for GRP was validated in the OVA model by using 2A11 as an independent GRP-blocking agent. The 2A11 decreased AHR to baseline, whereas MOPC did not (Fig. 2B). This 2A11 effect was a trend compared with MOPC (0.10 > P > 0.05). Decreased compliance in OVA/OVA mice was normalized by 77427 or 2A11 (Fig. S3). BAL inflammatory cells were quantified. Mice given 77427 (Fig. 2C) or 2A11 (Fig. 2D) had fewer macrophages, PMN, and eosinophils than OVA/OVA-treated controls (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01).
Lung histopathology typical of asthma was observed in OVA/OVA mice (Fig. 3A), with eosinophils, mononuclear cells (lymphocytes+monocytes), and few PMN infiltrating airway epithelium and smooth muscle. In contrast, OVA/OVA mice given 77427 (Fig. 3B) had infrequent inflammatory cells in airway epithelium or smooth muscle, but did have small perivascular infiltrates. To determine whether GRP might be visible in OVA/OVA lung sections, we carried out GRP immunohistochemistry (IHC). Alum/PBS/Saline negative controls had no detectable GRP (Fig. 3C), whereas OVA/OVA mice had prominent GRP IHC of many cells lining alveolar ducts (Fig. 3D). Another neuroendocrine marker, PGP9.5 (cytoplasmic), was observed in the same staining pattern in all OVA-immunized mice, not appreciably affected by OVA challenge or by 77427. GRP IHC of OVA/OVA lungs using GRP-preabsorbed GRP antibody had reduced IHC (Fig. 3E).
Lung histopathology and IHC in mouse lungs exposed OVA with or without GRP blockade. (A) Mice treated with OVA/OVA had inflammatory infiltrates with PMN, mononuclear cells, and eosinophils (short green arrows) throughout the airway epithelium (asterisks) and smooth muscle (long arrows) (H&E). (B) In contrast, OVA-immunized mice given 77427 before the first OVA aerosol challenge had rare inflammatory cells (green arrows) in airway epithelium (asterisks) or smooth muscle (long black arrows), except for perivascular infiltrates and a few cells outside airway smooth muscle (H&E). (C) GRP IHC in control mouse lungs treated with Alum/PBS/Saline. (D) GPR IHC of mouse lungs exposed to OVA/PBS/OVA, showing strong GRP signal in cells lining the alveolar ducts (black arrows). The same distribution of staining was observed for the general NE marker, PGP9.5. (E) In parallel to Fig. 3D, GRP IHC was performed by using anti-GRP antibody preabsorbed with excess GRP peptide. (Scale bars: 25 μm.) L, airway lumen; V, vascular lumen.
Using a multiplex assay of BAL fluid, we determined the absolute levels of 20 cytokines implicated in asthma. With O3, 77427 or 2A11 decreased 19/20 cytokines (P < 0.003) (Fig. 4, Fig. S6, and Table S1), including cytokines typically associated with Th1 cells [IL-2, IL-12(p40), TNFα, IFN-γ, GM-CSF], Th2 cells (IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13), Th17 cells (IL-17, IL-6, MCP-1), PMN (KC = mouse IL-8, RANTES), alveolar macrophages (GM-CSF, MCP-1, IL-1a, TNFα), and VEGF (alveolar epithelium, endothelium, and macrophages). The 77427 increased only MIP-1β. Representative data (TNFα, IL-5, IL-17, and KC) are shown in Fig. 4. Other cytokines are given in Fig. S6.
GRP blockade decreases O3- or OVA-induced BAL cytokine levels. Quantitative multiplex immunoassays show that GRP blockade by 77427 or 2A11 decreased O3- or OVA-induced BAL fluid cytokine levels, represented here by a Th1 cytokine, TNFα (A); a Th2 cytokine, IL-5 (B); a TH17 cytokine, IL-17 (C); and PMN-derived cytokine, KC (IL-8) (D). **P < 0.001, n = 5.
We compared O3+77427 to O3+dexamethasone (Dex) because glucocorticoids such as Dex are widely used to treat asthma. First, Dex had no effect on O3-induced AHR or BAL inflammatory cells (Fig. S4). Dex-treated O3-exposed mice had changes in 6 of 20 cytokines in BAL fluid: Elevated IL-12 (p40) and TNFα, whereas IL-9, IL-17, VEGF, and RANTES were decreased (Table S1). Compared with O3+Dex, IL-9, IL-17, and VEGF were more significantly suppressed by O3+77427. There was no difference in decreased RANTES levels with Dex versus 77427 (Table S1).
In the OVA model, dose–response studies compared low-dose (1 mg/kg) and high-dose (5 mg/kg) Dex. OVA/OVA mice treated with either dose of Dex before OVA challenge had similarly decreased AHR. Both low- and high-dose Dex decreased total BAL inflammatory cells and eosinophils by ≈27–28% (Fig. S5), less than seen with 77427 (55–80%, Fig. 2). In OVA/OVA mice, high-dose Dex decreased all 20 cytokines (Table S2), but the magnitude and significance of these changes were generally less than with 77427 (Table 1). The 77427 suppressed 14 cytokines significantly more than high-dose Dex. There was no difference in cytokine suppression by low-dose vs. high-dose Dex, except low-dose Dex had no effect on IL-3 levels and IL-12(p40) was decreased 80% by high-dose vs. 60% by low-dose (P < 0.001). For all significant comparisons, the relative direction of cytokine suppression compared with 77427 was the same for low- and high-dose Dex. Proinflammatory cytokines suppressed significantly more by 77427 than Dex at either dose are IL-3, IL-5, IL-12, GM-CSF, KC, TNFα, MCP-1, MIP-1β, VEGF, and RANTES (Table 1).
Table 1.
Suppressiv(e effect of 77427 vs. Dex on BAL cytokine levels in the OVA model of allergic airways disease
 |
Mean values indicate % suppression of BAL cytokine levels in OVA/OVA mice pretreated once with 77427 before the first OVA challenge, or high-dose Dex before each OVA challenge. P values compare suppressive effects of 77427 to Dex. Yellow in column two indicates more significant decrease by 77427 than by Dex. Cyan in column three indicates two cytokines more significantly suppressed by Dex than 77427. Cytokines suppressed equally by 77427 and Dex are highlighted in column one in green. Statistical analysis used the Student's t test.
As a first approach to determining which cells could be directly triggered by GRP, we performed quantitative RT-PCR (QRT-PCR) with RNA from several inflammatory cell types (Fig. 5). High levels of GRPR mRNA were observed in thioglycollate-activated peritoneal macrophages, pan-T cells, and CD4+ T cells, all markedly higher than the positive control H345 (42). PMN had lower levels of GRPR, which were still above levels in 5-wk adult mouse lungs. The relative order of gene expression for GRPR is as follows: CD4+T cells > pan-T cells > macrophages >> PMN.
To explore signaling mechanisms triggered by GRP in asthma, we performed immunoprecipitation and Western blot analysis to measure serine pGRPR in lungs of mice treated with O3 ± 77427 or OVA with or without 77427 because GRPR is serine-phosphorylated upon ligand binding (43). Representative Western blots and statistical analyses of all four blots are given in Fig. 6A and Table S3 (O3 exposure) and Fig. 6B and Table S4 (OVA exposure). pGRPR levels increased 1.3-fold (P = 0.012, n = 4) in O3-exposed mouse lung, and 77427 pretreatment inhibited this increase (P = 0.025, n = 4). Similarly, pGRPR levels increased 2.3-fold (P = 0.004, n = 4) in OVA/PBS/OVA-treated mouse lungs, and this elevation was suppressed by 77427 pretreatment (P = 0.011, n = 4). Higher pGRPR in PBS+FA controls (Fig. 6A) compared with Alum/PBS controls (Fig. 6B) may be related to the younger age of mice at the endpoint in the O3 model (5 wk) compared with OVA (8 wk).
GRP blockade decreases O3- or OVA-induced GRPR serine phosphorylation. (A) Immunoprecipitation and Western blot for pGRPR in mouse lungs exposed to O3 with or without 77427. One representative blot out of four total. (B) Similarly, GRPR serine phosphorylation in the OVA model. One representative blot out of four total. Statistical analysis of densitometry for Fig. 6 A and B is in Tables S3 and S4.
Discussion
This study demonstrates that GRP blockade prevents AHR and airway inflammation in two distinct mouse models of asthma. PNECs triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as O3 secrete GRP in response to lung injury (44). Either of two GRP-blocking agents, small molecule 77427 or antibody 2A11 (41), abrogate multiple parameters of asthma including AHR, numbers of BAL inflammatory cells, and BAL fluid cytokine levels after either O3 or OVA challenge. Altered PFTs, BAL cells, and cytokines persist despite modest effects of MOPC on baseline values in the OVA model. Supporting a key role for GRPR in AHR is the lack of O3-induced AHR in GRPR-KO mice. GRPR phosphorylation, the first step in GRPR signal transduction, occurs within minutes in vitro and could also occur rapidly after ligand binding in vivo (43). Sustained pGRPR in vivo might reflect GRPR desensitization with continued exposure to ligand (45). Whether the function of pGRPR is activation or desensitization, either role would likely be secondary to ligand-receptor binding.
GRP could promote asthma in vivo by both direct activation of target cells and by enhancing production of cytokines to amplify GRP-initiated inflammation. High GRPR gene expression in macrophages, pan-T cells, and CD4+ T cells suggest a mechanism involving GRP as a direct mediator of macrophage and T cell activation in asthma, consistent with reports of bombesin-induced macrophage activation and cytokine secretion in vitro (46–48). GRP targets diverse inflammatory cell types in adaptive and innate immune systems. We propose a cascade to account for abrogated AHR and inflammation after GRP blockade. PNECs are triggered by ROS, such as O3 or allergens (49), leading to GRP secretion and elevated GRP synthesis. Our observation of GRP-positive PNECs in OVA-immunized mice is unique, because mice are normally devoid of GRP immunostaining (50), suggesting that increased GRP production is linked to systemic immune responses. GRP elicits acute and chronic inflammatory responses with influx of PMN or eosinophils, monocytes/macrophages, and CD4+ T cells from peripheral blood. GRP induces cell proliferation, cell differentiation/activation, cell migration, and/or cytokine secretion from macrophages, T cells, and mast cells (27). Consistent with GRPR mRNA in PMN, macrophages, and T cells, GRP blockade suppresses acute and chronic inflammation in both O3 and OVA models. In baboon models of BPD (6, 20), GRP blockade normalizes thymic maturation and T cell responses and reduces CD4+ T cells in the pulmonary interstitium (28). GRP blockade could arrest migration of peribronchiolar CD4+ T cells, which contribute to airways inflammation in mice and asthma in humans (51).
In summary, GRP appears to function as a potent proinflammatory mediator by inducing cell differentiation and/or activation of inflammatory cell precursors from multiple hematopoietic cell lineages. Direct effects are also likely in airway smooth muscle constriction (21, 22), endothelial cell activation and angiogenesis (20, 41), and epithelial cell and fibroblast proliferation (6, 31, 52) during remodeling. Indirect effects due to increased cytokine production could occur in parallel, some cytokines being secreted earlier due to direct binding of GRP to GRPR on target cells, amplifying proinflammatory signals via multiple cytokine-specific receptors. It is not known what limits these responses, except perhaps anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10, IL-12(p40), and IFN-γ (53).
We compared effects of 77427 to Dex because glucocorticoids are the standard-of-care anti-inflammatory treatment for asthma, including acute exacerbations and prevention, despite many adverse side effects (54). Our data indicate that 77427 is more effective than Dex in both O3 and OVA models. Thus, 77427 may be a promising treatment for asthma in humans. Advantages of 77427 over Dex include its apparently long biological half-life, with one dose effective for at least 3 d during OVA challenge. The 77427 effectively blocks asthmatic responses to common airborne triggers, including both O3 and OVA. The 77427 has a molecular mass of 139, which should facilitate aerosol delivery to lung, and its synthesis is simple and economical.
We observed similar results with 77427 and 2A11 in all experiments, supporting the GRP specificity of these effects. Two clinical trials with 2A11 (55, 56) included 25 patients total with terminal lung cancer, refractory to conventional treatment, who should be immunosuppressed from chemotherapy and radiation therapy (57). However, 2A11 did not increase their incidence of infection, suggesting that antimicrobial and homeostatic host defenses may be spared, whereas GRP blockade may reduce harmful overactivation of immunity in asthma. Clinical trials will be necessary to test these hypotheses.
In conclusion, GRP blockade for treating asthma would represent a paradigm shift in the field. However, we cannot rule out similar regulatory functions for other PNEC-derived neuropeptides. PNECs have been implicated as regulators of ventilation-perfusion mismatches in response to hypoxia (16, 58). Bronchoconstrictor and vasoconstrictor responses could be homeostatic in normal lung, maintaining optimal ventilation-perfusion matching despite regional hypoxia. ROS-triggered PNEC activation with GRP secretion may be an example of host defense gone awry, with immediate airflow obstruction, then sustained inflammatory cell activation. GRP blockade by 77427 may provide a promising broad-spectrum approach to asthma therapy, including reversal and/or prevention of asthmatic exacerbations.
Materials and Methods
Detailed methods are in SI Materials and Methods.
Animals.
Five-week BALB/c mice were housed with low-endotoxin bedding. Experimental protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Use and Care Committee at Duke University.
O3 Inhalation Challenge.
Mice were exposed to O3 for 3 h. One hour before exposure, mice were injected IP with one GRP blocking agent [77427 or 2A11], Dex, or appropriate negative control (PBS or MOPC).
OVA Immunization and Challenge.
Mice were immunized IP with 10 μg of chicken OVA in 100 μL of Alum hydroxide or Alum alone. After 14 d, mice were boosted with OVA or Alum. Seven days later, mice received aerosol challenges (30 min/d for 3 d) with 1% OVA. Mice were given GRP blockade IP [77427 or 2A11] 1 h before the first challenge, and PFTs were performed 24 h after the last challenge.
PFTs.
Direct measurements of respiratory mechanics in response to MCh were made by using the flexiVent system and reported as total pulmonary resistance (cm of H2O per mL·s−1 at room temperature) or quasi-static compliance (Cst).
BAL Cytokine Assay.
Cytokines in BAL were assayed with the Beadlyte Milliplex Mouse Immunoassay by following manufacturer's protocols.
Immunoprecipitation and Immunoblotting.
Lungs were lysed in modified RIPA buffer with protease/phosphatase inhibitors. Immune complexes were captured with protein A-Sepharose-agarose. Western blots were probed by using anti-phosphoserine or anti-GRPR antibody, followed by HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies.
Histopathology and Immunohistochemistry.
Lungs were inflation-fixed in 4% PF then routinely paraffin-embedded. Paraffin sections were stained with H&E. For IHC, sections were stained with anti-GRP or anti-PGP9.5 antibodies, followed by biotinylated secondary antibodies, ABC complex, and diaminobenzidine as substrate.
Cell Isolation.
Peritoneal macrophages were elicited by injecting mice with thioglycolate. After 72 h, macrophages were collected. PMN were isolated from mouse bone marrow by using Percoll gradients. Pan T cells and CD4+ T cells were isolated from mouse spleen.
QRT-PCR and Statistics.
QRT-PCR was conducted using cDNA from 100 ng of total RNA, and SYBR Green Master Mix on ABI-PRISM 7300 detection system with β-actin as control. Student's t test was used for statistical analysis of all experiments.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Robert P. Orange and Prof. Baruj Benacerraf for invaluable discussions. This work was supported by an Established Investigator Award (to M.E.S.) from the American Asthma Foundation. Mouse model development and airway physiology were supported by National Institutes of Health Grants AI081672 and ES016347 (to W.M.F.).
Footnotes
Conflict of interest statement: S.Z., E.N.P., W.M.F., and M.E.S. have submitted a patent application to the Duke Ventures office, but outside contacts have not yet been made.
*This Direct Submission article had a prearranged editor.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1014792108/-/DCSupplemental.